A Handbook for Cane-Sugar Manufacturers and Their Chemists 1000763605
1 HANDBOOK A CANE-SUGAR MANUFACTURERS IMD THKUI CHEMISTS. l: GUILFORD 7AiV Chemui in Chargt of JPENCEE, The
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1 HANDBOOK
A
CANE-SUGAR
MANUFACTURERS IMD
THKUI
CHEMISTS.
l:
GUILFORD 7AiV
Chemui
in
Chargt
of
JPENCEE,
The Manujjaeluret
D.So.,
Cuban-Ameriean
(Chaparra^DHicias, Tinffuaro, Conataneia, MercedUat and Vniaadt CardenoB Oramercy Refineries); Formerly
Company
Chief of Suffor Laboratory^ U. S. Department if AgriaUturt, WaahingUm, etc.
SIXTH
EDITION,
SECOND
ENLARGED,
IMPRESSION, TOTAL
ISSUE,
NEW
JOHN
WILEY
London:
CHAPMAN
TEN
CORRECTED. THOUSAND
YORK:
" "
SONS,
Inc.
HALL,
Limited
Sugar
Copyright,
1916.
1905.
1889,
1917,
BT
JOHN
WILEY
PRfeM
"RAUNWORTH
sM
BOOK
Inc.
SONS,
"
OF
*
CO.
MANUFAOTURCBe
"ROOKLVN,
N.
V.
^
I
" I
9
DEDICATED IN
BONOB
GRATTTUDB
AND TO
M.
CH.
GALLOIS AND
M.
DUPONT
FBAN9OIB PAST
PRESIDENTS OF
ABSOaATION
CHIMISTES
DES BT
THE
THE
AUTHOR
411603
DE
FBANCB
/"
edition is enlargedto include
This
EDITION.*
SIXTH
THE
TO
PREFACE
a
chapteron Evaporation
Heating, by Prof. W. H. P. Creighton,Dean of the Department of Technology, The, Tulane University, Prof. Creighton's long experience as an New Orleans,La. States Navy, and in teachingin the officer in the United engineeringdepartments of Purdue and Tulane Universities, and
has
Juice
eminently fitted him
I extend
A
thanks
my
for the
this article.
to him.
have been
errors typographical
few
preparationof
slightchanges have been made clearly. descriptionsmore
to
corrected and
bring out certain
some
process
G. L. Spsnceb.
Mass., 1917.
Cambbidob,
PREFACE
The
THE
TO
FIFTH
EDITION.
section devoted to ijiemanufacture
enlargedin of
this edition. raw,
The
processes
plantationwhite
and
in
has been greatly use
in the
refined
facture manu-
sugar
are
described.
Through the courtesy of Mr. George P. Meade, Superintendent Cardenas the include of (Cuba) Refinery,I a control as is practised and refinery chapter on sugar refining in the United The
book
States. has been
largelyrewritten.
has been revised to meet factories and
now
in
operation.
several of the older
ones
The
chemical
tion sec-
the conditions of the very large Additional tables are included have
("eenreplaced by
recent
tables. G. L. Spenceb.
Washington, D. C, 1915. "",
vii
'
i
r
PREFAC3E
edition
first
The
few
been
book
with
industry in
available
a
addition
to
of
control
proper
requires
knowledge a
of
of
of
chemical
this
the
cane-
is
book.
this
by
methods
training.
of
this
For
manufacturing
the
of
material
more
sugar-factory
a
little
branch,
in
much
that
result
when
but
engaged
now
time
a
and
concerning are
the
at
chemists
English,
preparation
the
written
was
employed
chemists
Many
The
this
in
written,
sugar-work.
sugar
of
EDITION.
FOURTH
factories
cane-sugar
had
THE
TO
processes
chemist
the
in
manufacture,
reason
a
is
included
of
manufacture
brief
scription de-
in
this
edition.
With
the
and
the
sugar,
competent
the
large
past
few
increase the
years,
tendency
in
toward
whether
raw
chemist
or
in
the
scale
complexity
greater the
the
of
production
refined,
factory
the
of
of
becoming
processes,
grade
one
necessity is
ing dur-
having generally
recognized. G.
WAsmNOTOir,
D.
C,
1005.
L.
Spencer.
of
a
r
r
CONTENTS,
MANUFACTURE
CANE-SUGAR
OF
FAcn
R"w
Material
Extraction Steam
1 the
of
Plant
Outline
of
Juice
and
Fuel
Raw
Purification
32
Sugar
of
0
:
the
Manufacture
36
Juice
38
Defecation
and
Defecation
using
Closed
Heaters
and
Open
Defecation
using
Closed
Heaters
and
Closed
Clarification
Sulphitation
Process
Sulphitation
after
Carbonation
Processes
Harloff's
Acid
Sulphur
Stoves
Carbonation
of
Tanks
Open
39 Settlers
43
Settlers
45
Louisiana
47
Liming
49 50
'.
Thin-juice and
55
Process
Sulphitors
58
Tanks
60
Kilns
Lime Filtration Chemical
61
Processes
and
Reagents
used
Evaporation
of
Preservation
of
Boiling
the
in
Purifying
63 the
Juice
72 77
and
Juice
Sirup
83
Sugar
85
Sugar
86
Crystallization and
Purging
Machinery
Juice
of the
Crystallization
in
Motion
94
the
99
Curing
Classification
of
Raw
Classification
of
White
Deterioration
of
Sugars
of
Warehousing Sugar
in
Raw
Sugar Sugars
102
.'
Sugars
103 103
Sugars
103
Refining
Raw
106
Materials
107 109
Defecation
!
Filtration Char
112
115
Revivification of
Crystallization Drying Technical
and
the
Finishing and
Chemical
118
Sugar the
120
Products
123
Control XI
CONTENTS.
XU
SUGAR
ANALYSIS PAQB
Sugars
and
Optical
other
Constituents
Methods
of
of
Sugar
the
Cane
and
Analysis
Its
Products
134 141
^ "
Chemical
Methods
of
Density
Determinations
General
Analytical
109
Averaging
199
of
the
Sugar-cane
Analysis
of
the
Juice
Analysis
of
Sirup,
Analyras
of
Sugars
Analysis
of
Filter-press
Analysis
of
Bagasse
and
Analysis
of
Factory
Wastes
Analysis
of
Molasses
214
:
221
Massecuites
and
Molasses
259 274
;
and
Cake
280
of
Sugar-house Evaporating
and
282 294
Cattle
Calculations
Chips
Exhausted
Food of
Applications
Control
Chemical
187 191
Analysis
Definitions
Analysis
Work
and
Sampling
Sugar
298
used
Expressions
in
Sugar
Work
Sugar-house
Work.
301 310 340
Juice
Heating
350 ,
of
Purchase
Analysis
of
Quality
on
Limestone,
a
Basis
Lime,
of
its
Sulphur
Analysis
382
and
Sulphurous
of of
Flue-gases the
Reference
Reagents Tables
386 390
Water
403
Supply,
Treatment
of
Fermentation
Special
Acid
Oils
Lubricating Analysis
Cane
\
Impure
Water
407
".
409 410 423
LIST
ILLUSTRATIONS.
OF
PAGB
VlGTTRa
Central
Delicias,
1.
Cane-shredder
2.
ProntUpiece
Cuba
10
Krajewski
Crusher
11
3.
Krajewski
Crusher-roll
11
4.
Fulton
Crusher
12
5.
Fulton
Crusher-rolls
12
6.
Puunene
Housing
13
7.
Fulton
8.
Meiaschaert's
9.
Mill
Housing
14
\
Grooves
Juice
16
Settings
10.
Diagram
11.
Draw-down
12.
Diagram
13.
Vivien
14.
Sulphur
18 Saturation
Compound
of
for
Pipes
20
Defecators
44 ^
Closed
Deming's
of
Settling-tank
46
Tube
56
Stove
15.
KeUy
16.
Sweetland
17.
Hersey
18.
Nicol
19.
Half-shadow
59
Press.'!
Filter
Filter
68
Press
69
Granulator
121
(diagram)
Prism
141
Compensating
Single
Compensating
20.
Double
21.
Half-shadow
Polariscope
Polariscope (Josef
Polariscope
(Schmidt
143 "
Haensch)
144
Jan-Fric)
146 ,.,...
22.
Half-shadow
23.
Triple-field Polariscope
24.
Arrangement
(Julius
Polariscope
of
Peters)
147 148
in
Prisms
Triple-field
Polariscope
(diagram)
149 .
..
Polariscope
25.
Laurent
26.
Compensating
27.
Transition
28.
Cane-sugar
150
Attachment Tint
for
Laurent
Polariscope.
151
Polariscope
Scale,
152 Scale
Ventske
154 ^
29.
Control
Tube
for
30.
Polariscope
Tubes,
31.
Polariscope
Tube
32.
Bates'
33.
Polariscope
34.
Pellet's
Continuous
35.
Pellet's
Continuous
36.
Landolt's
Polariscope Tube
Polariscopes Ordinary with
158 Forms
158
End
Enlarged
159
Tube with
159
Tubule
Side
Polariscope
160
Tube
160
.
Tube,
Modified
Form
161 ._
Inversion
Tube
162 ,.
37.
Wiley's
Desiccator
Caps
for
Landolt's
Tube
162 ^
,
"
"
"
LIST
XIV
OF
ILLUSTRATIONS.
flOUBB
38.
PAGS
Sugar
40.
Capsule FilteringDevices Sugar Flasks, Diagram
41.
Pellet's Conical
42.
Sugar Balance
43.
Decimal
44.
Balance
45.
Norma
46.
Brix
39.
166 166 ^
of
Types
167
Flasks
168 170 ,
Balance for Rough Alcohol
Weighings
173
49. 60.
Calumet
48.
172
Stove
Hydrometer Reading the Hydrometer Westphal Balance Pyknometers
47.
171
."
193 ,
Scale
193 ,
195 197
Sampler '51. Coombs* Drip Sampler 52. Horsin-Dton's Sampler 63. Press-cake Sampler 54. Sample Box for Sugar
203
Trier
213
205 206 209 212
66.
Sugar
66.
Hyatt Cane-reducer
57.
Extractor
58.
Vacuum
Drying
Apparatus
69.
Vacuum
Drying
or
60.
Abbe
61.
Immersion
62.
Sugar
63.
Sucrose
64.
Funnel
,
214
for Use
in Fiber
Tests
218 223
Distilling Apparatus
224
Refractometer
227
Refractometer
228
Refractometer
229 231
Pipette for Alundum
Holder
65.
Sargent's Alundum
66.
Filtering Apparatus.
Crucible
67.
Alcohol
68.
Current
69.
Soxhlefs
Crucibles
238
Holder
238 239
Burner
241 for
Regulator
ElectrolyticWork
243
Filter Tube Burette
70. Squibb's Automatic and
Knorr
244 248
Tubes
Filter
248
71.
Wiley
72.
Muffle
for Incinerations
255
73.
Muffle
for Incinerations
255
74.
Muffle
for Incinerations
75.
Apparatus
for
76.
Inversion
Flask
77.
Karcs's
78.
Kohlrausch
79.
Bagasse
80. Bagasse 81. 82.
Volume
262 269
."
Apparatus
for
Crystal
Content
Flask
with
271 281
Chopper, Boot Chopper,
of Massecuite
"
Krantz
Athol
283 283
Induced
Draft
285
Bagasse
Oven
Bagasse
Oven
288
Digester
290
Digester, Norris
291
83. Bagasse 84.
255
Weighing a'Unit
Bagasse
85.
Knorr-Soxhlet
86.
Hors6n-D6on's
Extraction Control
Apparatus Device
298 318
LIST
ILLUSTRATIONS.
OP
XV m
FIOVBB
PAOB
87.
Lftboratory
88.
Massecuite
89.
Diagram
326
CeHtrifugals Funnel
(CobensI) of
90.
Diagram
91.
Vacuum
Pan
92.
Vapor
Distribution
93.
Elevation
94.
Knorr's
95.
Schroetter's
96.
Engler's
97.
Orsat's
of
CO2
Calculating
for
Effect
Multiple
"
Molasses
Mixtures
Evaporator
326 347 355 356
in
Effect
Multiple
a
Horisontal
T3ri)e
of
Evaporator
358 359 392
Apparatus Alkalimeter
393
Viscosimeter
Gas
the
Separating
for
400
404
Apparatus .
.
.
^
)
/
THE
MATERIAL.
RAW
Sugar-cane.
1.
is
Cane
"
The
Saccharum.
genus
sterile. the
The
recent
have
arrows
been
conditions.
freely every
in Louisiana
with within
believed
were
the
varies Until
blossoms
or
not
noted
growth
its flowers
years
then
its
of
cultural
plant "arrows"
Tropics and
large grass, belongingto
a
mode
variety, climate, soil and comparatively
CANE-SUGAR.
OF
MANUFACTURE
be
to
usually only in A
year.
few
very
exceptionallymild
in
years.
Large numbers stations new
varieties.
and
with
in various The
parts of the world
seedUngs
are
crossed
which
are
for
now
in broad
in the
with
resistance
search
other
for
seedUngs
in several varieties
resulted
culture.
The
varieties
new
particular qualities such
some
ment experi-
teristics. develop certain charac-
to
experiments have
in
produced
now
existingvarieties in order These
selected
seedlingsare
of
as
are
richness
in
disease, persistence of type, time of The most ripening, milling qualities,fuel value, color, etc. sucrose,
extensive of the
seedling varieties
of
use
old varieties
It is
to
generally believed freely is
cane
arrows
cane,
however, is often
sugar
content.
months
deteriorates
begins. plant
The
grows
in Cuba
usually
very
rich
regards
yield of
the
cane,
littletaller and
in
in its
flowering, and, as
that
not
It increases
after
Java.
There
few
in which
the
cultivated.
now
are
is in
as
^*ery sucrose
sucrose
year
productive. content
for several
with
other
when
the
rainy
however,
may
after
Such
an?l of low invert-
is true
sugar
heavier
a
canes, season
small,since flowering. be
the
2
MATERIAL.
RAW
"
Sugar-Ksanevaries greatlyin richness in differentcountries and
in the
even
attain
even
a
It does
country.
same
of 17 per
content
sucrose
cent
surpassed in other countries.
is sometimes
containing
12
of
cent
per
often exceed
not
in
Cuba, but this
A
cane
iana in Louis-
is considered
sucrose
or
very
rich.
Sugar-cane is propagated by located
nodes.
the
at
planted with
a
Pieces
that
cuttingsof the
or
covering of soil
shallow
very
of the buds
means
cane
are are
in certain
or
only partly covered, but in this latter event irrigated.Each bud produces a plant and from each of
localities are
these
are
there
clump
several
are
stool of
or
shoots
or
The
cane
canes.
These
suckers.
form
a
suitable soil and
under
in several usually planted but once New "ratoons," spring up from the plants, termed years. stubble,after harvesting the crop, and produce a second climatic
conditions
and
crop
Fiscal
on.
so
limit the crop two
or
is
to
soil and
or
climatic
"plant-cane"
or
to
conditions
times some-
plant-caneand
one
ratoons.
Dark-colored
usually produced in sub-tropical the light-colored, greenish or yellow canes r^ons.and in the Tropics. The Tropics,however, will produce canes of is the "cristalina" variety. The usual Cuban cane any variety and is of a lightcolor. Normal
They and
varieties
sugar-canes
are
are
hollow
never
partially so.
or
contain
approximately from 87 to 90 per cent of juice uents some water, in composition with certain plant constitlittle or (colloid water), that contains no sugar.
Canes other of such
that
abnormal
ar"
conditions
are
on
climatic
some
hollow, but
sometimes
is usually very
cane
of
account
the
or
proportion
small.
The
with the approach of cool or dry weather. plant matures Harvesting usually begins long before the cane is considered to be ripe, in order to obtain If a long working season. the factory is in an irrigateddistrict, the distribution of water is suspended a few weeks before the cane is to be harvested, to
promote
increases
and
ripening. The the
reducing approaches maturity. The
stalks
are
cut
sucrose
sugars
off close
to
content
of
decrease
as
the
ground
the the
stalks
plant
in harvest^
4
HAVf
MATERIAL. "
be harvested
by burning, but it must loss
The
The
includingfive days
but
in the
The
purificationof the juice is with of the
carbon
with
as
in
cane
to
up
from
the
price,
it at
any
time.
plished usually so readily accomfaces cane, and the heating-sur-
not
sound
foul
evaporator
refuse
may
rain
agrees
burned
deduction
without
of rainfall he
burned
should
manufacturer
receive
to
and
event
ing. by the burn-
is greatlyincreased
rate of deterioration
fall upon the burned cane. Cuban most contracts cane
The
sooner.
particlesof
fine
persist through the manufacture in the sugar. It is preferableto grind
and
sometimes
finallyappear of sound
and
burned
alone, since the mixed The
method
with
local
their
cane
juicesare
in
carts
at
all in Cuba.
small
railway in Cuba in the Island
The
in bullock
of Hawaii The
in punts.
burned
cane
to the
cane
factory varies
factories
Small
or
ture mix-
a
readilypurified.
more
of transport of the conditions.
than
rather
cane
largelyused in the Hawaiian not
is accelerated
through deterioration,which
to avoid
promptly
very
usually transport Portable railways are
cars.
Islands is
cane
and
in
brought
Java, but almost to
the
factory
or
It is
carts.
and
in British
use
of flumes
the
the factories fiumedj" ported transGuiaiJS^|nisually and
complicates ptu^is mills. jui3B|^the
estimating of the percentage yield of Inferential methods, based the analyjpHKjthe cane upon ^en become the weight of the latter,may and juice and
necessary.
Sugar-cane is usually sold to
its richness to devise a
upon
The of
in sugar an
or
to
the
the factories without
regard
cult purity of its juice. It is diffi-
equitablemethod
for the
purchase of
cane
basis of its
analysis. (See page 382.) following table showing the composition of the stalks
Louisiana
December,
cane
at
is inserted
the
time
of
through the
harvesting, Novembercourtesy
of Dr.
C.
A.
of the New York Sugar Trade Laboratory Browne, Chemist and formerly of the Louisiana Sugar Experiment Station. The figuresare condensed from many analyses of the purple The varies composition of the cane variety of the cane. climatic conditions, character of the soil, with of manner fertilization and and its cultivation,the age of the cane
variety:
SUGAR-CANE.
COMPOSITION
OP
Wa""r.
SUGAR-CANE.
LOUISIANA
74.60%
74.60% SiUca.
Si02. Potash. KjO
Ash.
0.25 0.12
Soda"Na^
0.01
Lime.
0.02 0.01
CaO
Magnesia, ACgO Iron, FeaOa Phosphoric acid, P^" Sulphuric acid, SOs.
O.fiO
Trace 0.07
0.02 Trace
Chlorine, Q.
Fiber.
Cellulose Pentosans.
10.00
14.00
Siiears
6.60 .
i Xylan fAiaban
"
(Cane-gum) Lignin bodies, etc
2 .00 60
2.00
Sucrose Dextrose
12. 60
(
90 60
Levulose
Nitrogenous bodies 06%) (Total N-.
0.40
.
Fat and wax. Pectin (ffums). Free adds Combined acids. .
..
..
that
.
the
.
0 .
20
0.01
T^ace Trace 0.20
0.20 0.08
0.20
(Malic, succinic,etc.) ) " *"
"*
0.08
""
0.12
100.00%
juice of
0^ 12 0.07
0.20
0.12
Total
The
Albuminoids Amids (as asparagin) acids (as aspartio) Amido Nitric acid Ammonia bodies Xanthin
cane
100.00%
contains
nitrogenous substances
objectionable in the manufacture. ^ isolated Fritz Zerban asparagin,glutamin and tyrosin. A part of the asparagin and a stillgreater part of the glutamin are
more
broken
are
up
or
less
in the manufacture
the result that asparin the molasses along with
with
glutamic acids accumulate undecomposed asparagin and glutamin. These amids are given off during the largely responsible for the ammonia are evaporation of the juice. Acid amids and aminoacids positivemolasses-makers. A small amount of cane-gums (pentosans) and of fat and find their way into the juice during milling;these together wax with the pectin acids and nitrogenous bodies make up the organic solids,not sugar of the juice. The of amount these organic impuritiesdepends upon the age and variety of tic and
the
cane
Their and
and
also
upon
the
pressure
of
the
mill-rollers.
higher in the juicefrom the second in the juice from the first mill;* their
percentage is much third mills than Int. Congress
Chem.
8, 103.
*
Eighth
s
Cane-sugar, Prinsen-Geerligs,2d edition, 31.
1904, 3S, 49.
App.
Browne,
La.
Planter,
b
RAW
MATERIAL.
sion-batter higher in the juicefrom the diffu-
relative percentage is also than
in
mill-juice. The fat and of albuminoids, and part of the gums amount removed during the clarification. Hie
the
purityof
of the
content
sucrose
juicevary that
purity than exists between NoSl
the
has
on
"Uid upper
the
following table
three
for
similar
A
lower
difference
halves of the stalk. the
canes,
in each
sucrose
and
content
intemodes.
the
percentage basis. ^
a
juiceare
also the coefficient of
sucrose
analyzed whole
has referred
cane
is of lower
the lower
Deerr
node, and whole
of
of the
greatly in different parts of the stalk.
juice of the nodes
The
and
cane
the greater
wax,
His
varieties
pith, rind and to that
part
in the
figuresare
given in
of Hawaiian
canes.
using these figuresit should be considered that the separation into pith,rind and node can be made approximately only:
In
The
cane
contains
coloring matters
anthocyanin and saccharetin insoluble
such
of Steuerwald.
'
as
chlorophyll,
Chlorophyllis
is therefore
in the readily removed purificationof the juice. Anthocyanin is precipitatedin the in the carbonaof excess of lime, hence is removed presence tion process. It is partiallybleached by sulphurous acid. charetin Anthocyan ' is very soluble and decomposes rapidly. Sacin water
and
is present in the
Steuerwald lime and
and
it turns
fiber of the
yellow and
oliier alkalis and
cane.
to
is soluble
is not
in the presence of altered in the carbonation unites
Saccharetin
processes. sulphitation
According
with
iron to
Such saccharetin is as intensely black compound. of juice passes through all the processes present in the raw
form
an
30, Haw.
1
Bui.
"
Int. Sugar
*
C.
Sugar
Journ.,
Mftller, Bull.
Planters'
14,
Assoc,
Exp't Sta.,
36.
53.
des
Chimistes
de
France,
31, 849*
f
and
manufacture
7
SEASON.
MANUFACTURING
in
finallyappears
the
molasses.
Sao-
prevented from entering the manufacture by thoroughly strainingthe juice as it flows from the mills and by the non-use of alkaline imbibition water. Sugar-cane usuallycontains three sugars,^sucrose/ dextrose and levulose (d-Fructose,Fruit sugar). The dextrose and levulose are plant in nearly present in the very immature charetin
should
be
these equal proportions, i.e., in the proportionsin which is inverted by acids. As the formed when sucrose are sugars the levulose
matures
cane
iisappears. Levulose This
molasses. the dextrose
again always
its solutions
sometimes
however, in the isomeric changes in
to
heated
are
and
appears,
is due
reappearance
when
decreases
content
in the presence
of
earths, notably potassium of Cuban salts. The content cane-juice, reducing sugar the "glucose" in the cane levulose and dextrose,termed alkalis and
salts of the
alkaline
between 0.4 and 1.35 per cent. industry, usually ranges almost or quite absent The reducing sugars are sometimes from cane-juices. This condition existed for several weeks in the writei's experienceat Magnolia Plantation, season one Louisiana.
The 0.25 of the ash
K3O, about
25
The year
able. cane-juiceis quitevaritween in the author's Cuban experience is berange and 0.6 per cent in the juice. The composition is also very variable. Potassium, figuredas potash, from abundant the most constituent,ranges
mineral
The
ash content
or
to 45 per
cent
of the
of the ash.
composition of the ash .of the juice also varies from be noted in the table on page 8, colto year, as may "A":
unms
Season. The season begins at Manufacturing In the greatly varying^dates in various parts of the world. almost rainless districts where ing irrigationis practised,grindbe prosecutedduring nearly or quite the entire year. may %.
This The
"
is true
not
Pellet been
France,
in parts of the Hawaiian
and
Peru
Islands.
begins in October and November and lasts through December and often into Jan-
of manufacture
season
in Louisiana 1
in
reported raffinose in confirmed
14, 139;
see
by
other
also
Deut.
cane
chemists
but
its
presence
(Bull. Assoc,
des
Chimistes
molasses,
Zuckerind., 9(3, 1439).
has de*
8
RAW
ANALYSES
OF
MATERIAL.
THE
of
(Percentages
and
Factory
Crop
CUBAN
OF
ASH
CANE
JUICES
Ash)
the
Year
B .
.
(1912) SiOs
Silica,
and
Iron
6.46
Alumina,
FesOs^
AliOj
3.00
CaO
Lime,
4.70
MgO
Magnesia,
5.01
KsO
Potash,
46.28
Na"0..
Soda,
1.36
PiOt.
Add,
Phosphoric
4.21 .
.
Chlorine,
CI
Carbonic
Acid,
in
COt
northeast
is
months,
the
of
nearly The the
a
with
the
of
the
with
the
its growth
This
the
the
on
count ac-
ian Hawai-
The
about
The
dry
six of
parts
many
the
during
the
factories
monsoon,
or
corresponds
in
determines
season
the
expense
The
Tropics. of
transportation at
parts
very
season.
rainy
period
of
season.
November.
Argentine
advent
in
longer
grind
in
continues
and
the
grinding
months.
following
of
interruption
frequent
uary Jan-
though
longer
even
with
much
into
May
June,
conditions
Indies
East
or
in
period
manufacturing until
the
and
Cuba
in
November
very
manufactunng
interfere renew
in climatic
permit Dutch
and
May
though
about
from
Cuba,
begins
season
usual
September
of in
December
December
into
rains
in
The
from
coast
of
Islands
begins
Rico,
Porto
continue
may
10.53
season
Indies
West
4.08 12.90
The
uary.
.
SOt
Acid,
Sudphuiic
of
the
its
cane,
sucrose
the rains but
close not
cause
content.
of
only it
to
EXTRACTION
Milling
3.
is unloaded in
devices
from
in
are
Where
the
in
little These
and
a
the
In
devices
platform
the
onto
and
dumping
Cuba
in
unloading
capacity
the
to
and
time
a
with
using
The
in
time
of
are
device.
this
factories
using three devices
Dumping the
cane
general types upon
discharged
a
the
These
carrier.
factories from
the
and
cars
or
of
which
to
breakage
of
a
bundles
the
favor
in
the
cane
load, in with
a
occasions
often the
of
arrangement
less end-
drag the
provided
yoke,
cane
heavy
are
However,
of
it is carried
under
passed
are
usually
car-load
a
which
arms
employed
hoists
The
elevators
with
hoists
of
use
railway
in
tracks
milling plants. great
quickly and
with
are
of
dumping
platform,
endwise
the
from
hopper
in
of
railway
again used
generally
third
attached
is little loss
there
carriers
or
are
cane
very
a
method.
simplifies the
greatly
cart
upon
carts.
or
cables
or
hoist, and
a
half
a
are
and
intervals
at
Chains
them.
tripping loss
fitted
pulling the
cars
elevators.
by
in the
Louisiana
many
devices
drop it into
mills
chains,
for
lift
to
in
or
large piles for the
derricks
same
cars
termed
in
or
but
carrier.
Hoists
a
form,
placing it
in
used
are
in Java
extent
some
and
cane
such
used.
the
from
conveyors,
the
case^
of
often
are
cane
interruption
prevent
the
Raking
their
to
latter
up
have
run
to
derricks
endless
devices
deteriorates
cane
lift the
to
cane
factories.
the-
Louisiana,
upon
according
picking
in
at
in
as
and
^The
"
forms
Many
factory.
is cool
climate
Cane.
mechanical
especially in Cuban
use,
or
the
by
carts
modem
deposit it
service.
to
and
cars
JUICE.
THE
Unloading
"
usually arranged
are
night work,
in
the
storage,
elevators
or
Processes.
well-equipped
the
carts
OF
cane
minimum
in
devices.
which
through
a
is then a
Cuba.
of labor.
transit. In
the
tilted
swinging
door
There one,
charge dis-
They
ther, Furtwo
are
the
car
is
and
the
load
into
the
hopper 9
is
10
EXTRACTION
"
elevator.
of an
wise. and
The
when
points
when
the
in the
cane
The
due
the fields and
in
to the
the of
3-roller mills.
The
the
prepare
and
structure
the
cylinders. is required It is
position. tor
handling
delivered
to the
of the cut
mills.
to the
cane
The
sun
in
large.
and crusher
in or
used
are
expressing shredder
and
for milling case
it to tilt
causes
first used
at
industry.
crusher
in the
level
ployed em-
by
and
shredder
of the crusher,
three arc
breaking
exclusively
juice.
its
These
or
more
designed
down
the
to
hard
extra.ctinga part
of
juice.
The was
cane
a
released
is hinged
pressure
Multiple-mills
"
top
is usually
hydrauhe
a
were
exposure
cane
usually consist
to
car
devices
is very
cars
the
the
at are
platform
little water
be promptly
Machinery.
crushing
The
from
and
mechanical
should
loss of sugar
Mating
very
sorghum-sOgar
cane
hinged
aie
Hydraulic-power
is released
platform
that
probable
car
latches, which
platform.
this arrangement the
TOICB.
the weight of the load itself
that
wat"r
return
to
with
load.
the
tilting the
such
With
sides of the
the bottom
at
dumping in
or
THE
type the platform is tilted side-
In the second
stakes
fastened
OF
first successful
the
Fiske
National
and
machine
for preparing
cane-shredder, Fig. 1, invented
first used
in Louisiana.
This
for
cane
by
machine
milling Samuel coosista
tACnOH
OF
TKB
TUICI!.
A
fie"tond type
of crusher
This
differs in its cutting
from
that
of the
and
V-sbaped in
into groups, teeth.
5.
and
This
There
machine
crusher.
are
a
ing plants, a
crushes
only
pt^
are
thoroughly, of the juice. the
cane
The
The
or
a
crusher
mills have
bottom
two
is not
blunt-tooth
type
used, but
in its
top roll in the first
known
as
"excelsior
generally used in Java.
very
"cane-roll," and roll."
to
8,
rolls, especially a
PresentKlay Fig. 1.
is well
rolls,as
prevent clogging the
cost,
special corrugated
"
rolls,
pitch, vith
provided
considerable
moderate
at
Such
mill.
ue
installations, especiallyin atr^tgthening old mill'
some
Btead
of the
teeth
separating the teeth
Fig.
In
cutting
The
also grooves
are
not
in Fig. 4.
crushiog surface quite radically
or
opposite ends
from
scnqiers
but also expresses
Fulton, shown
luranged spirally,1.75 inches
are
Fig.
ia the
Krajewski
the spiralsworking fihown
13
FBOCEBSES.
MILUKG
always three rolls, ae
roll,where
that bottom
the
cane
enters, is termed
opposite the "bagasse" rolls
are
is shown
or
in the
"discharge-
usually rigidly fixed
in
pod-
'
14
arranged that it may
so
in the feed of the the bagasse-roU by
to
in the
THE
the top roll is controIIe4
tion and is
OF
EXTRACTION
top-roll cap is
"b^asse,"
in
rise and
7. one
fall or
This
is
tions varia-
applied
is shown
ram
of rolls to
trash-turner, etc., according
Fw.
A
pair
turner,
is
presatire
crushed
plate, variously termed
the mill la used.
"float"' with
The
curved
uid
hydrai'.ljcram
an
builders,
certain
from
passed
by
Hydraulic
cane.
Fig.
JTHCB.
called
now
cane,
the
in
next
by
a
turnplate, knife, dumb-
a
in which
the country
to
7.
supported by
a
steel turn-
heavy
plate-bar. The
mill-rolls
housings
mill-cheeks.
in Figs. 1 and
shown
and
or
7.
The
crown
driven
from
engine
is connected
with The
in massive
supported
are
The 2
and
wheels
the top roll
are
through
older
recent
more
by
types
which
shown
the
castings of
housings
models
in
bottom
in Fig. 1,
flexible
termed
The
couplings and
are
Figs. rolls
are
drivinggearing
the top roll of the mill.
Fuupene housing, probably
the
G
original of the inclined
in
type,is shown shown
in
which
one
housing is cane
the mill from
is inclined.
bagasse and
the object in inclining of the top roll.
the side toward
the
Since
The
6.
"flotation"
the
promote
to
enters
latter
Figs. 1, 2, and
other types in
inclined housingis
dispenses with the king-bolts projectingabove. the top-rollcaps of
This note
may
A recent Fulton
Fig.6.
Fig. 7.
16
PROCBS8ES.
MILLING
which
stress
greatest and
that
between
ing' hous-
is between
top rolls,by incliningthe housing
/resultant of this pressure
the
The
so
the
that Cane
the the and
angle of inclination,the top-roll brasses will rise and fall freelyin the housing or the roll will With the usual types of housings there is a tendency float. top rolls will follow
the
"
**
bearing brasses to "bite" into one side of the slot. This biting-inresults in friction that retards the free motion The Honolulu of the roll in accommodating itself to the work. this tendency in their have Iron Works overcome whose tion posihousings by fittingthem with an hydraulic ram be so adjusted as to promote the free rise and fall may for the
of the roll. Mill-rolls
cast of
.
the
bagasse. A
return
smooth-bottom t
an
to small
rolls is
grooves
probable
and with
even
tively compara-
the introduction
deep juice-groovesdescribed below. The feed-roll.in recent Hawaiian practicehas juice-grooves J inch wide by 1 inch to IJ inches deep, 2} inches pitch should patents). The depth of the grooves (P. Messchaert's
of the
be
1 J inches
in rolls 34 inches
less in smaller
rolls.
The
to 36
method
of
inches
in diameter
and
grooving is illustrated
Fig. 8. Special scrapers are used to keep the grooves free of bagasse. The grooves provide a very free exit for the juice eliminate slipping and the consequent mill and practically
in
^
iron mixtiure that will remain
rough acquire a "grain" with use that facilitatesthe feeding of or rolls are and bagasse. The often grooved to prothe cane mote and the breaking down the feeding of the cane of Its of various These structure. are shapes, forming grooves little used except are diamonds, zigzags,etc. Such grooves In the usual in Java. method, the rolls have peripheral V-shaped grooves, from three to six grooves per inch of roll length. The size of the grooves has been greatly increased the slipping of the roll upon to reduce in recent years, are
16
EXTEACTION
vibrftUona. be
used
The
An
OF
unlimited
without
of saturation
quantity
Blipping
JUICE.
THE
reduction
or
water
may
grinding capacity.
of
mill inlets and
ai"e, in
some
all tend
to
outlets may be very materially reduced in instAnces These conditions nearly one-half. increased
an
juice extraction
also
and
grinding
capacity. Messchaert
'
is obtained These the
extracted inch
lower
itself above
of
The
may
be
inch
1
smooth.
preferably
grooves,
of the
bagasse
discharge roll.
is the Hind-Renton
grooving.
milling plant that obtained 97
over
per
that
It is claimed of
part it
as
a
the boot
steel roll-shells may
that
of
crop
a
and
content the
grooving
deep
in
extraction
cent,
an
(sucrose
in cone). The pitch is two grooves per cent, sucrose the groove and angle is 30" instead of the usual at^le 60",
of about
the usual
moisture
in
roll
the
those
than
inch
wide, 1
invention
tried out
been tor the
average
by
bagasse roll.
or
numerous
grooves
The
reduced
Hawaiian
Another
the
inch.
per
is materially
has
these
discharge
more
always bear
must
three
This
for
and
in extraction
improTement
the
1 inch
are
Except
top loU
about
per
smaller
are
feed"rotl and
The
further
by also grooving
grooves
pitch.
that
states
pressure
hydraulic few
on
rams,
groove
in
a
the juice flows
and
that
the
with
bagasse
this
grooving.
the top roll is usually regulated except
mills in Java
L
not
have
wedges
It is also claimed
"boot-jack,"
be used
through
out
generally
in
by
meana
paratively Com-
Java,
hydraulic regulation,,most
Mauutacturing
MMbinery
for
191^
mill
slow
engineers preferringvery
of the
17-
PROCESSfiS.
MILLING
roll
speed and
rigid
a
setting.
applied on the top roll varies with the length of the roll,the strength of the mill and the quantity The pressure is also to b^ ground in a given time. of cane tandem.'' varied with the positionof the mill in the series or mills and rolls 7 feet long about 500 tons With strong modem Practice varies as and upward is often applied. pressure but this approximates 150 to 250 tons hydraulic to the loading,
hydraulicpressure
The
''
300
from
the
on
pressure
numbers
crusher,425
to 450
tons
apply
to
applied to
pressure
crushed
the other
on
tons
on
the first mill,and
mills of the train.
top rolls 7 feet long. The the
to receive
cane
500
to
crusher
These
high
very
and
first mill pr^ares the imbibition-water,or thin juice from
the last mill.
hydraulicregulationof
The
the top roll has
a
two-fold
pose, pur-
protection of the mills from serious damage in the event should a piece of metal fall into them of a or too heavy feed of cane, and the regulation of the opening viz.,the
between
the rolls to suit variations
bagasse
passing through
in the quantity of
them.
The
hydraulic
cane
or
pressure
sometimes piece may to bury itself in the shell without raisingthe roll sufficiently with powerful spiral afford protection. Toggles combined carried is so great that
now
springs instead The has
used
are
of
en
many
of metal
a
of
Mirrless,Watson
Co.'s
mills
hydraulic rams. of very
use
strong cast-steel housings
manufacturers
enabled
to
or
mill-cheeks
dispense with
king-bolts. only part way
Fig. 7, or to use very short bolts that extend through the housing (Honolulu Iron Works). This arrange* of large diameter ment permits the use of hydraulic rams with consequent increase of life in the packing leathers. mill The setting''or the adjustment of the openings '^
between
the
rolls and
the
relation
of the
tum-plate
to
the .
rolls,varies greatly in different factories and with the rate the quality of the canes and the grooving of grinding and modified when of the rolls. The setting is also somewhat hydraulic-pressureis not used on the top roll,or when it is of this chapter, applied to the bagasse-roll. For the purpose and
not
as
a
it is only necessary guide in mill-setting,
to
give
18
EXTBACnOK
OF
THE
JUICE.
in Cuba. These openings, etc.,of a small milling-plant shown in the diagram, Fig. 9. be noted that the It may are evening between the turn-plateand the top roll is gradually etilargedfrom the inlet to the outlet end. Special juiceused in mills. these This not enlargement are grooves permits the bagasse to expand after the first pressure and
the
facilitates the passage
of this material
and
the escape
of the
juice-groove6 (Messchaert) are juice. Where used, millopenings are very much smaller than in the example cited. The speed at which is usually a system of mills is driven of the periphery of the rolls. expressed in feet per minute Practice varies greatly in different countries in regard to the
speed of
the rolls.
in Java
to
as
This
high
as
from
ranges 30
over
as
low
as
12 feet
minute
feet per
or
less
in certain
SrdliiiU
Cuban
plants. The
Hawaiian
practiceis
about
an
average
of these numbers.
improvement in mill-accessories of recent years permits carrier by means of or the driving of the cane-elevator independent engines instead of from the milling machinery. This Two engines are used to avoid stopping on the centers. An
method in the
of
driving the
delivery of the
the crusher
and
each
the extraction of the
Milling-plants are many
as
conveyor cane
to
uniformity thus by giving
results in greater the Crusher
mill full work
and
at all times
it promotes
juice. now
21 rolls in addition
in
operation using from
to those of the crusher.
9
to
as
A favorite
a large factories consists of 12 rolls and of rollers engineers consider this number crusher, and many limit except where a largetonnage about the present economic be driven by one or more engines. be passed. These may must be ground, it is must When large quantity of cane a very
combination
in
20
OP
EXTRACTION
THE
JUICE.
bagasse from the firstmill and that of the last mill upon the bagasse from the second mill. Water is applied to the bagasse The the third mill. from juice from the crusher, first and second
mills enters
into
is modified
of the water
the manufacture. the needs
to meet
The
application
of other
tions combina-
For example, in the exceeding 12 in number. Mill, Maui, H. T., when grinding with their tandem of rolls
Paia
consistingof a crusher and 21 rolls,all the the bagasse from the fifth and sixth mills. on Maceration and
lower
lower
from
is
applied
applied to both the upper side of the blanket of bagasse. The application surface of the bagasse does not usually penetrate layers. It is preferable in applying the water
to the upper
the
water
to do
above
is sometimes
water
so
just as the bagasse emerges
between
from
IV
"0i"""^ To
Fio.
Defecation
10.
the rollsso that it will absorb it in it acts
as
a
that has been
sponge
^^
expanding. In
this way
compressed.
The
of saturation is obtained in the double highestefficiency and compound There is,however, always danger processes. if the plant of fermentation of the thin juicein these methods is not well arranged for it,hence many manufacturers prefer the mills. The mills water to use only, dividing it among be shut down must at frequent r^ular intervals for a thorough
cleaning where practice, due
these to
methods
high
cost
are
used.
of labor
and
The
usual
Cuban
cheapness of the
the mills grind the largest quantity of cane will pass with good efficiency. This condition prevents thoroughly saturating the bagasse with thin juice as in the since very and wet double bagasse compound processes,
product, is
to
slip and the mills refuse to receive have improved with the introduction
rolls to
the
causes
conditions
These
21
PROCESSES.
MILLING
it. of
the time to factories can juice-grooves. Few Cuban spare thoroughly wash down the mills and tanks of tener than once a
week.
by
Tests
investigatorslead
many
is practically the
the mill extraction be used
of
The
manufacture.
sugar
the
of the
matter
that
tion-water macera-
quality
some
water.
warm
whether
same
The
l^onclusion
-fuel economy usually dictates the usq Alkaline water should not be used in white-
and
of the water
cold.
Ipt or
the
to
hot
is derived
water
from
the
evaporator-coils,etc.,t"ver requirements of the steam-plant, and is therefore very water, from
of return
Those
distilled water.
of the heat
into
the
juice
units
that
pass
with
plus sur-
the pure
the
largely economized. is also a slightlyincreased There evaporation of moisture the bagasse in transit to the fires,as compared with from with cold saturation. With that obtained properly fitted rolls th"*e is Uttle danger of looseningthe shell from the shaft
saturation
water
by expansion in the The
saturation
bagasse.
Neither
use
of
warm
are
water.
completely penetrates the the physical condition of the bagasse nor water
never
element, i.e.,the duration of the contact with the water, permits complete penetration. Manifestly the nearer we approach this ideal condition,complete penetration, the the
time
better the
the extraction
of the sugar.
of the older methods
reverse
in which
and
the heaviest
were roll-pressures
the
series.
cane
The
is
now
Modem
broken
mill
practice is
the strongest mills
found
in the last mill of
thoroughly in the of the juiceas possible, up
crusher,with the expressionof as much and the heaviest roll-pressureis carried in the first mill with a view to thorough preparation of the bagasse to receive The present tendency in milling is to apply the saturation. the maximum
pressure
to
the firstmill that is consistent with
of cane, amount strength and the grinding of the necessary and thus rupture the maximum of juicepracticablenumber cells. In other words, it is clearlyrecognized that the bagasse be thoroughly prepared for saturation. these Under must
its
conditions,moderate mills.
pftessures only
are
requiredin the
sequent sub-
22
EXTRACTION
If all the or
that
JUICE.
THE
of the plant are ruptured juice-cells
crushing
when
OF
and
process
is
the water
in the shredding
the first grinding,it is evident
applied
to
the
bagasse, if the time
sufficient,it will penetrate it and dilute all of The time element, however, in practice the juiceit contains. be
element
is
so
only
cells escape the superficial portions of the juice are
short, and
so
many
of the
rupture, that diluted.
demonstrated
by laboratoryexperiment with water is required follows, that very long contact as for the dilution of all the residual juice in the bagasse: A was sample of bagasse from thoroughly crushed cane in the proportion of 5 parts of bagasse heated with water The
to near
45
author
has
parts of water, and the
boiling-pointone
maintained temperature was The and bagasse water hour.
thoroughlymixed
and
the dilute
COMPARISON
OF
MILL-JUICES.
the
juicewas strained The residual juicewas off,using moderate- pressure. expredsed with a laboratory cane-mill,using very heavy pressure, and the two samples of juice were separately analyzed. The percentage of sugar in the juiceextracted by the mill was very ing. largerthan that in the juiceobtained by strainperceptibly This repeated several times with experiment was like results. Again, in diffusion work with cane, the author ate has frequentlynoted that the thin juiceobtained by moderfrom the exhausted chips contained less sugar pressure These experiments show that than that by heavy pressure. it is not practicablein millingto dilute all of the juicein the and that a factor depending bagasse with the saturation-water, the time element and the efficiency of the mills must upon be appliedin estimates of the water actuallyutilized. The followingfiguresare from records of actual milling:
were
then
Water the second
mill.
The
layers of the bagasse
upper
saturated,but the lower
bagasse as it emerged
the
sprayed upon
was
23
PHdCBSSES.
MILLING
received
ones
much
from well
were
less water,
as
the
and comparatively little penepartly absorbed trated from the analyses to the lower layers. It is evident that the water did not uniformly dilute the juice in the
latter
was
bagasse. Influence of the Structure' of the Cane has
structure
influence
marked
a
on
MiUing.
on
the mill results.
^The
"
With
efficient
milling certain canes* yield bagasse containing 50 per cent woody fiber (marc) and 45 per cent of moisture; mills and mill-setting ground with the same others, when and apparently the same give bagasse containing efficiency, very
45
per
cent
conditions
of fiber and
have
varieties Nos. In his on
Mill
been
Work
*
in Java
These
grinding the
when
100.
study of "The "
of moisture.
cent
per
observed
and
247
60
of the Structure
Influence
Noel
Deerr
"It
says:
not
of the Cane
infrequently
happens that while the fiber remains of constant percentage, the extraction varies largely,the millingconditions remaining Such variation can the same. the be readilyunderstood on the of fiber remains assumption that while the total amount its distribution between the pith and rind varies,an same, increase in the proportion of the latter being accompanied by
decrease
a
in the extraction."
Adhering leaves and the immature tops of the stalks, remaining through careless harvesting,increase the quantity of fiber that must be passed through the mills and adversely affect the
extraction.
Increased
saturation
is necessary
to
this influence.
overcome
Efficiencyof Milling. The efficiencyof milling is most conveniently expressed in terms of the percentage of the total "
in the
juice. Numbers 92 and 95 indicate good efficiency;those above 95 between are exceptionallyhigh, and 98 is perhaps the best recorded number in mill-work and is one which rivals results by the diffusion process. The efficiencyis also indicated by the numbers obtained in the analysis of the bagasse or by sucrose
the
cane
relation between 1
Bui.
that is extracted
the fiber and
30, Hawaiian
Sugar
in the
sucrose
Planter's
in this material. Expt.
Sta., 41.
24
EXTRACTION
OF
THE
JUICB.
Straining the MiUrjuiee. ^Three types of Juioe-strainers "
viz.:
in use,
(1) Hand
strainers
in which
the
juice is passed through a perforated-brassplate surface,kept clean Such used only in very small screens are by hand work. factories. (2) Strainers consistingof perforated-brassplates surfaces are whose of flightsor slats, k^t clean by means The similar to a squeegee. less flightsare attached to an endare
They brush
link-belt.
the
particlesof bagasse from
the
plates and elevate and deliver them onto the bagasse-carrierfrom the first mill. The holes in the strainerplate are round and about 0.04 inch in diameter, or the plate of the
surface
is
perforatedwith
If the
holes
thinner
and
smaller
are are
about
round
324 the
holes
plates must
liable to break.
This
be
per
square
inch.
correspondingly
is the type of strainer
generally used in large milling-plants. (3) A recent strainer,patented by Van Raalte, a Dutch engineer of the grasshopper sugar-conveyor in Java, is a modification that
is very
(see
page
102).
In
this
modification,the
bottom
is
composed of brass plates perforated with A canal holes of approximately 0.02 inch diameter. fine bagasse, the strainer collects the juice. The conveyor
the
of
roimd under '^cush-
English factories,is discharged at the end of the strainer,in a thoroughly drained state, and is returned by an elevator to the mills for regrinding. cush''
The
of the
first type of strainer is not
to be
considered
second
or
is very
great, and
for
use
in
drag type has certain marked disadvantages as compared advantages and some very It strains large quantities of juice with with the others. and occupies very little space. The wear few interruptions factories.
modern
of the ihick
The
perforatedsheets sheets
the
be
perforations must The
otherwise
be
foul,and
undoubtedly this is
necessary.
link-belt a
in order
larger than soon
becomes
to
use
would very
of sugar losses which chemical control begins with source
consideration,since the be frequently the strained juice. The belt and flightsmust The juice-canaland tanks under cleaned and steamed. this strainer cannot usually be conveniently located,thus making in a thoroughly sanitary condition. it difiicult to keep them The elevator also fouls quickly from juice-drippings. escapes
The
third
type of strainer,the
"grasshopper,"so
far
as
DIFFUSION
writer is aware,
the
is
25
PROCESS.
outside
yet untried
as
of Java.
A
marked
with advantage of this strainer is the ease which it may be kept in a sanitary condition,thus reducing Thin sheets with very thci loss of sugar. fine perforations very
be
may
used.
There
strainingsurface for
1000
of
of
tons
is very
4.
cane
Process.
in 1889, there
the
6.
page
the
of
When
"
on
sheets.
A
feet is sufficient The
importance of its bearing on the
juice and
raw
the
on
hours.
24
per
is stated
Extraction
wear
approximately 2X16
thoroughly straining the manufacture
little
'
Juice
tlie
by
Diffusion
first edition of this book
was
written,
rapid extension of the diffusion process in the cane-sugar industry. Even at that had very largelysuperseded presses in the date this process the only process used in beet-sugar industry. It is now extracting the sugar from the beet. The advent of diffusion forced mill-builders greatly to improve their machinery, and, of multiple-millsrivals at the present writing, the work the best diffusion results in extraction. The ever, mills, howdo their work
and
the
excellent the
expense
has
diffusion.
of
regards the
been
mills, has In
devoting
doned. entirelyaban-
so
the
also
view
of these
much
space
industry,is
cane
almost
milling, with
of
by modem
writer hesitates in as
fuel economy. It is largely for fuel,the large water requirements
diffusion
results
decline
a
marked
convenience
The
expect
in disposing of the residual ''chips" difficulty
bagasse, that
or
with
to the increased
due
to
reason
was
contributed conditions
to
almost
attendant
a
process
only
to
the
that,
of historical
interest. In
the diffusion process
the
cane
is cut
into small
chips
oralices, which are packed into cylindricaliron vessels termed Each diffuser is provided "diffusers,"or "cells." with and page
strainers
at
with suitable 27.
The
with from
as
with
indicated
a
in
juice-heater the diagram,
diffusers are a
arranged in a series and the combination "diffusion battery." The cane-chips
systematicallyextracted
diffusers.
bottom,
pipe connections
is called are
the top and
The
chips that
water
enters
with
warm
water
the first cell in the
in
these
filled series,
and of sugar, nearly exhausted passes cell to cell,each containing cane-chips richer than its are
26
'JUICE.
THE
OF
EXTRACTION
predecessor,UDtil it finallyfillsthat containing fresh canecuttings. A measured quantityof juiceis now drawn oflFfrom is pumped defecation-tanks. to the the last diffuser and first diffuser
The the
is
chips it contains
exhausted
diffusion process
which
passing through classes
Certain
readily
and
The
colloids.
of
pass
include process
or
not
chips
with
the
that property
upon
in
solution,of
contiguous solution. through a membrane
a
all.
at
The
former
stances, sub-
crystalloidsand the latter, "dialysis,"or, taking into through the crystalloidmoves
sugar, are is termed the
"exosmosis."
or
into slices little more
ideal
The
highest efficiencyof this
for the
The
juice.
dense
possesses,
substances
"osmosis"
membrane,
is based
into
the' direction
accoimt
theory
slowly
with
sugar
membrane
a
others
which
discharged. always in contact
class of substances
certain
a
in
series and
the
are
containingthe least sugar are weakest juiceand the richest in The
from
disconnected
now
tion condi-
is that
process
the
ness plant-rellin thickrupturing few cells,thus permitting the process to be low conducted at a temperature, extracting the greater leaving a considerable part of part of the sugar by dialysis, be cut
cane
than
a
impuritiesin the exhausted residue. This condition can not be even approximated in actual practiceand the process of maceration rather than diffuaon. one usually becomes the
Diffusion Process. Manipulations. The first duties of the head that all joints are to see batteryman are in place, and that are ti?;ht,that the various signal-bells The
"
all mechanical
details essential to
good work
received
have
attention. One
of the
several
methods
of
arranging the valves
battery is shown, in the diagram, page For
convenience
of reference
the first to be filled with when
the water
to
supply
about of hot
Fill cell No. 4 with heater No.
No.
3 and
4 at the
203** F. water
will suppose
the water
heaters; fillNo.
two
cell No. 1 with
into No.
3 in the
same
first round
4 is
water;
2, passing it
heating
manner,
(95" C.).^This
for the
a
27.
chips. Fill cell No.
this cell is filled turn
through
we
of
assures
an
of the
dant abun-
battery.
cane-chips; pass the hot water up through down through heater No. 4 and into ceU
bottom, drivingthe air
out
of this cell
through
28
EXTRACTION
with
chips. It is For
time
now
same
top, is
the
with
the
drawn
to
measuring-tank
and
requisiteamount
the
tank-valve,
that
open
previouslyreceived
from the
No.
precedingones,
having No.
connecting heater
its
the
Having
charge.
a
juice and
12
Having
II.
being already established connecting the juice-main draw
of
fiU cell No.
juice-main and is
valve
of diffusion-juice.
the first draw
as
pressure
the
open
JUICE.
draw
us
manner
manipulation, the
next
THE
make
to
example, let
filled this cell in the
at
OF
closed
the
with
the
12
usual, this cell having
as
cell No.
charge of chips. When
12
Continue charge of juice as before. in this manner, drawing a charge of juice from each cell of cell No. 14 is reached, discharge the fresh chips. When from Nos. 1, 2, and 3 through the waste-valves, the water valve connecting No. 1 with the water-main having been draw filled,
closed
also that
and
of cell No.
connecting heater
Connect
5.
cell No.
Cell No. 4 is now
main. of the in
another
5
directlywith
of the circuit, and
out
battery is completed.
If compressed
forcingthe circulation, as
each
is usual
(except the first round
of the
will have
little water
The
to open
air;
or
the air-vent
left in it.
the
the
top
water-
the firstround
air were
juice is drawn very
4 with
No.
employed
time
a
cell of
battery),No. 4 next operation is
No. 4 for the escape of the compressed if water-pressure is used, to admit the air to the cell on
through the waste-valve.' The door at the bottom of the cell must be opened and now the exhausted chips discharged into a suitable car or carrier. The workman on duty below, before latchingthe door, should rapidly pass his hand, protected by a cloth, about that part and
of
permit the
the
jointto The the
bottom
water
which
escape
first "round"
of the
with
in contact
comes
adhering chips,which
remove
regularroutine
remain
to
might
cause
battery having been Three
commences.
and filling
hydraulic
the a
leak.
completed,
cells should
always
being prepared for fresh chips. Every time a cell is filled with fresh chips and juice be drawn and a cell of exhausted a charge must chips rejected. work In regular it is usual to designate the cell first in the open
"
series, i.e., the the
one
one
which
one
receives
the
water
direct
from
supply-tank, No. 1, and that from which the juice is drawn. No. 10 or 11, according to the number of cells com-
29
PROCESS.
DIFFUSION
posing the battery. In the above descriptionof the battery said in regard to the temperature to routine nothing was which the
juiceshould
the
at
temperature
experiments
Fahr.
.
.'.140*
.
followingtable
United
the
tion. Magnolia Planta-
at
8 203"
168"-176"
shows
Government
States
in the work
(234667)
1
OeUnumber
Temp.,
which
conducted
were
The
be heated.
0
10
11
12
203"
203"
186"
160"
subsequent work, using the Hyatt cane-reducer, much dilution of the lower were required. The temperatures In
juice was but
0.07 pep
of sugar
cent,
high temperature
The
necessitated
by the
lower
millingand
of the
temperatures
diffusers
of the
the
saturation,
left in the exhausted
was
coarseness
which
experiments, in much
with
greater than
no
was
chips. In the earlier
maintained
were
chips.
in this work
sliced, not
was
cane
and
shredded,
with
factory satis-
a
extraction. ,
juice is heated into the circulating pipes. This method batteries the
In many
the
of
and manipulations slightly, sugar through leaky heaters.
Prinsen-Geerligs* advises
by injectingsteam of heating modifies
eliminates
risk of loss
the
^
following procedure: "The most advantageous way of heating is by steaming the diffuser of 75" C, and not filled with fresh chips to a temperature this temperature the others. At the cells die warming and the sucrose diffuses,whilst the albumen coagulates. is drawn After the diffusion-juice off,its place is taken by the
in contact with has been previously heated juice which chips and hence has a lower temperature, and this goes on until the exhausted with chips leave the diffusion-battery the
temperature
same
in the In
chips no
heat
order to obtain
chips and
coarse
at
they had
becomes a
entering it, so
that
lost."
maximum the
when
extraction time
same
a
with
juice of
moderately a
maximum
of cells 9, 10, that the temperature density, it is necessary 11 be kept as high as is practicable. The hotter the and water entering the cell containing the fresh chips,the better "
""..
1
Cane
J-
"
Susar
and
the
Process
of its Manufacture
"
in Java, p. 26.
30
EXTRACTION
the
extraction
for the It is
in this
well
a
heavier
of
dilution, and
if we
91, and
about
average
draw
the
do
we
analyses of the juices contained to
the work
commence
estimating
on
an
Extraction
If the
juice,and is
density safe
to
chemical
economical
chips
the
and
of
about
With
thin
reduced
to
density
less than until
18
when
of
cane.
sion-juice diffu-
the
90
per
bum
coal to
more
but
there
two
which
or
might
three have
evaporate tenths
per
it is not
is
careful
a
additional of
cent
obtained
been
cent
satisfactory regular work
cent,
per
cent,
per
a
and
chips
except
23
juice in the
of
be decreased
following table, designed
The
based
dilution
by
poor
it is
water, sucrose a
little
dilution.
hieher
the
should
the
It is safe
promptly detect and remedy a the best multiple effect evaporation
leave
than
rather in
to
sucrose.
contains
and
though the normal
of
the
cane
lower
be
to
With
extraction.
a
this limit
control
is
ordinary plant-cane will
cents
per
satisfactorybut
be
below
go
variation In
cane.
even
vary,
cent
obtained. may
This
will
per
the draw
dilution
the
in the
sucrose
juice in
dilution
of 90
average
low, the
too of
same
with
is
normal
(ratt^oons)89; consequently, of juice when diffusingplant^cane
juices wilt
two
the
in stubble
stubble, the
with
in
cent
per
cent
per
amount
same
quality of
perfectly regular extraction,
a
the
ever, had, how-
the
sucrose
juice-content of the
(in Louisiana)
seasons
be
upon
considerably.
vary
variable
the
to
of
consequently the
diffusion-juice,will due
and
the
maximum.
a
percentage draw,
chips 'and
should
effect of high t^nperatures
uniform
juice, a
in
sion rapidly the diffu-
more
consideration
Due
constant
a
the
this cell.
difference
greater the
the
in them
place.
less work
enter
juice bathing the
juice in de";idingupon
With
as
that
thin
the
juice contained
for the
the
JUICE.
consequently the
cell,and
fact
known
will take
the
THE
subsequent portions of thin juice which
densities
the
OF
dilution an
on
of
an
for
different
assumed average
specificgravity).
for
preliminary work, gives
quantities
of
juice-content in the
density of
16"
Brix
juice drawn. cane
of 90
(9" Baiun^,
It per
or
is
cent, 1.0656
BT-PROBUCT
5.
OF
of
By-Product
derived
moisture
supplies
a
is
bagasse
fiber of the
woody
and or
in many
The
product by-
nies), (EInglishcolo-
megasse
the residual
the saturation-water.
from
large part and
very
Diffusion."
with
cane
31
DIFFUSION.
AND
Milling
milling cane
of the
MILLING
juice and
This
instances
material
all the fuel
required by the factory. The exhausted chips from diffusion dried in Egypt by flue-gasesand supply a considerable are part of the fuel. has
It
utilized
but
to the commercial
Havik East
*
Indies
islands per
paper.
to
with cent
a
stated Havik's
these or
operated only
utilization
by
view
to
paper
mills short
a
of exhausted
of the diffusion
success
materials
three
be wee
time,
chips would process.
the Government
investigate the fibers of Java
of the
The
Two
were
commissioned
was
that
urged
manufacture.
paper
hoped that such
was
lead
32
in
for this purpose,
built it
frequently been
of the Dutch and
manufacture.
He
the
other
obtained
weight of dry bagasse in dry unbleached
bagasse yield of
52
Cheribon
from
was
per
cent
of paper
experiments. *
Int.
Sugar
Journ.,
14, 52.
cane.
is
The
quently fre-
disproved by
STEAM
Steam
6,
in
Boilers
a
the
and
the
is necessary of
boiler
requirements boiler
boiler
horse-power large Cuban
factory, having
utilizing the
or
1
per
of the
reduce
these
with
15
cent
per
Both
is often on
meet
the
The residue
bagasse
very
the
of
boiler
horse-power feet
utilization
boiler of
the
materially white-sugar
may
steam
to
have
large
of
the
for evaporating
requirements
applying
advantage
of
of the
heavy
cane-
The over
fire-tube the
other
fits it to
the
factory for steam. factory is the woody Many instances
in many
requirements.
saturation
in
water-tube
capacity, which
water
cane-sugar
their only fuel, and excess
an
used
select
safety.
itself, bagasse.
cane
are
factories
irregular demands
from
in
the
evaporating
of
boilers
greater
their
of
of its
fuel
produced
the
of
or
square
the
increase
including
pans
steam-consumption
Cuban
considered
usual
as
15
to
and
water-tube
Many
account
type
other
or
manufacture
in
etc., may
account
on
12.5
The
and
factories.
boilers
to
more.
fire-tube
sugar
boiler
or
industry,
using pre-evaporators
first
mill-work
increase
wash-waters,
the
customary
equipment,
multiple-effect in juice-heating
its attendant
of
factory in nominal
a
nominal
1.50
to
numbers.
If the
beet
is
It
juice-heating
about
or
Good
heating-surface.
in
1.25
capacity-ton,
vapors
in the
not
the
multiple-effect evaporator sirup, requires from
facture manu-
juice, in juice-heating
good
but
from
vapors
the
capacity-ton.
cane
quadruple-effect evaporator,
a
the
capacity required by per
for
capacity
application
lessened.
are
boiler
for raw-sugar.
is customary
fis
of saturation-
and
cane,
quired re-
manufacturing
More
multiple
evaporating
purposes,
the
is
rich
includes in
state
A
produced. for
the
capacity
quantity
plantation white-sugar than
for other
its
with
the
cane,
sugar
than
poor
generated
vapors
and
grade of
boiler
-The
factory varies
equipment
factory
Fuel."
quality of the
for
FUEL
AND
and
cane-sugar
equipment, water
PLANT
in
The
factories
use
this material modern
milling has
dency ten-
increJtsed' 32
8TEAM
the
demand
oil must
BOILERS
for steam, with
often
the result that
also be burned.
cost, labor and fuel
dear
very
33
FUEL.
AND
Where
or
is of moderate
cane
and
the sugar sells for a very sometimes bring in larger net
price, the factory may returns by grinding a large quantity of low
coal,wood
less
efficiently than it could a small quantity. This large grinding produces fuel in the and surfaces to more proportion radiating it is usually necessarilyaccompanied by the use of a reas duced nated. quantity of saturation-water,extra fuel is often elimiThis condition frequently exists in Cuba, hence few factories have adopted pre-heaters or use a part of the cane
the
multiple-effect evaporator in heating juices in evaporation sirup in vacuum-pans. or There three general t3rpe3 of furnaces used in burning are first bagasse for the generation of steam. (1) The green of these was patented by Samuel Fiske, the inventor of the from
vapors
cane-shredder. Cuba
It
first used
was
and
in Louisiana
then
in
at ''Soledad"
Cienfuegos. This furnace consists of an fitted with horizontal grate-barsupon which the bagasse oven is burned. A singlefurnace was often connected of by means flues with several boilers,thou^ preferably in entirelynew installations was
under
with the
but
front
end
the
In
two.
of the
used
in the
after
using it in Louisiana.
latter
boilers.
the
case
furnace
Forced-draft
was
since the bagasse often left early installations, the mills with as high as 60 per cent moisture. (2) Almost Cook introduced his simultaneously with Fiske, Frederick at bagasse-burner into Cuba "Hormiguero,'' also green
bagasse is burned two
water-tube
Fiske
and
hearth
a
boilers.
through
bagasse the
on
Air
tuyeres.
Cook
In
bumiers
this
in
an
all
to
furnace
the
placed between
oven
is forced
Prior
of
type
into
the
bagasse
the
burning
introduction sun-dried
was
of in
burning it. The inventions of Fiske and Cook had a profound influence upon sugar-manufacture in Cuba through enabling,and, in fact,forcing the factories to operate day and night instead of but fourteen hours, and in sending Cuba
before
of people to the fields who large numbers in drying and firingbagasse. furnace
is the third and
is usually a
fiunace
most
in front
recent
of each
type.
were
formerly
(3) The
ployed em-
step-grate
In this type there
boiler. The
grates
axe
r
34
STEAM
and
inclined
resemble
FUEL.
AND
PLANT
and in fact step-ladder,
a
often
are
"step-ladder" grates. These grates are very long and narrow. The bagasse falls upon the top steps of the ladder and gradually works its way to the small flat grate termed
at the bottom.
installations of all three types of furnaces
Modem
efficient. The
draft is in
and
very
usually used
Forced
in
very
the
Hawaiian
and
Islands
littleused, since with the vast
now
milling,the
often
very
The generallyused in Cuba. efficient with very dry bagasse and are
is most flat-grate
step-gratesare those
are
much
usually contains
bagasse
less moisture
Java.
ments improve-
50
givesgood
and
cent
per
results
with natural draft.
of Bagasse and Other Uesidues. ^There is great of heat units (B.T.U.) of peruniformity in the number fectly Fuel
Value
"
dry bagasse,as has been shown calorimeter world.
consideringthe
In
it is burned that
a
tests made
combustion
upon
actual
by the results of in various
fuel value
the grates, it must
certain number
of heat units
are
be taken
many
parts of the of
bagasse
as
into account
absorbed
heating the resultant vapor peratiu^ of the chimney. Further, a part of the fuel is consumed of air that is drawn in heating the excess through its moisture
and
in ing evaporatto the tem-
with this and an is carried away also with the products of combustion.
the grates and
additional
quantity
Dr.
Norris
^
publishedthe followingfiguresfor
of various
Hawaiian
R.
S.
bagasse
degreesof moisture: Fuel Value per Pound of Bagasse, B.T.U.
Moisture Per Cent in the Bagasse.
42
3129
43
3057
44
2982
45
2909
46
2835
47
.2762
48
2687
49
2614
60
2540 2468
51 "
' "
"
Bui. 40, Hawaiian
Sugar
Planters*
Expt. Sta.
outline
an
of
customary
the
manup;acturing
Introductory.
with
them United
the
States
of
Outline
Juice,
by is neutralized to
the
In
Louisiana
by milk
practice the
juice after heatinij and continued
tanks
juice"
mud
retained
in
with
the
"clarified"
the
clear
"sciun"
the
of
tories fac-
juice in specisd
the
juice.
fied "clari-
or
(Cuba="
"slops"
filtrate The
"filter-press cake,"
press,
F.
ing by boil-
liquid
or
clarified
the
off
number
greater
the
raised 200**
is then
filter-pressed and
is
is mixed
"press-juice"
decant
"mud,"
the
from The
cachaza).
and
little below
settle
juice
is then
"brushed"
process
plished accom-
acidity of the
is often
The
brushing.
heating,
after
latter
the
defecation
using the
The
a
esses proc-
book.
juice is
of the
usually
scum
The
in
Purification of the
"
heat.
or
than
of the
part
lime, its temperature
of
point,
"cracking"
and
and
ing illustrat-
elsewhere
subsequent
a
imize min-
especially to
parenthesis.
clarification
or
of lime
means
in
is to
time
same
used
Manufacture.
defecation
^The
"
the
the
at
Terms
in full in
outline
descriptions and
included
are
this
of
terms,
examples.
described
are
7.
technical
of the
many
cane-sugar.
purpose
repetitions in future
the define
raw
The
"
op
method
or
tates precipiused
are
in
fertilizingthe fields. Evaporation, to
vacuo
^The
"
(Cuba,"
"sirup"
a
mdadura
"
single-effect
sirup
is
point
crystals pan
or
with
evaporates,
upon
the
and
the
grain present Should
sugar
without
Pronounce
it contains
At
sugar.
in
sirup from
additional ^
separate
the
time is
the. formation
boihng to
time,
this mass.
as
the
largely deposited of
additional
crystals, "false-grain," **
in The
pressure.
with
=
of water.
accomplished
reduced
saturated
"grains"
"charged"
water
crystals.
imtil
evaporated
is
under
vacuum-pans
partial
industry
cent
per
crystallization is
Crystallization, ^The
in
beet
^;
juice), containing approximately 45
thick
The
juice is evaporated
clarified
May-lah-ddw-rah.'!
36
form
OP
OUTLINE
through carelessness mterference
THE
or
37
MANUFACTURE.
otherwise
they must
be remelted
to
subsequent stage of manufacture. Finally whesi the crystals are of sufficient size or the pan has been of crystals and filled,the mixture sirup is concentrated prevent
to
dense
a
fill-mass)and
at
the
^^
a
"massecuite/^ (beet industry
mass,
=
strike'^ is then
latter is often termed
This
dischargedfrom
the pan.
^'strike'' pan.
a
The massePurging; R^xnUng Molasses, Centrifttgaling; cuite is conveyed into a mixer and from this is drawn into have centrifugal-machines,"centrifugals.''These machines "baskets/' lined with wirecylindricalperforated metal cloth or at perforated bronze-sheets and are high spun "
are sugar-crystals
velocity. The washed
be
may
upon
it with
retained
by the liningand
if desired.
water
The
mother
of liquor, "molasses," passes through the liningby reason The machine is stopped after the centrifugalforce exerted. of the molasses
removal
the
and
the
leaving the centrifugalready for another and
is reboiled
molasses
The
the
yielding
"second
massecuite"
"second
sugar"
is also reboiled
molasses
molasses," "black The
than
increases
thus modern and
or
is here
"pan-boiling" molasses sirup or is said
of
strap"
the
to be
down,"
charge of massecuite. second
a
is
and
and
followed
processes
complicated the
obtain
to
is "cut
sugar
of
crop
centrifugaled as
"second
crystals before,
molasses."
This
yields"third sugars" and
"final
"third molasses."
in the
modem
indicated. is
factory
At
a
certain
injected into the
"boiled-in^'
or
more
stage of instead
"boiled-back"
output of high-grcidesugar.
factory usually produces but
pan
are
one
In
and
it
fact ths
grade of
sugar
final molasses.
Factory Design and
Construction.
^A
large Cuban
factory of recent construction,designed and erected by B. Glathe, Chief Engineer of The Cuban-American Sugar Company, in the Frontispiece. This factory has two tandems is shown trains of mills. It is so arranged that its capacity may or further increased or even by adding a readily be doubled extending the boiling-houseat the right. The present annual capacity of the factory is approximately The of of tons buildings are steel, 80,000 sugar. is operated. largelyelectrically and the machinery mill-house
at the left and
"
"
PURIFICATION
Pariflcation
ttons. beeu
OF
of the
THG
JUICE.
Juice.
General
Considera-
juice is first thoroughly strained
The
"
The next step is ]"age 24. Lime the class of sugar that is to be made.
described
upon
t
PROCESSES.
MANUFACTURING
8*
"
on
has
as
dependent and
heat
facture. manuexclusivelyin raw-sugar methods of making plantationwhite In the simiiJer and high-grade yellow sugars, sulphurous acid is used in Conjunction with a small quantity of lime. In these processes the lime is added to neutralize or partly neutralize the acids of the juice and that of the added acids if any,
the agents used
are
and heat is then
almost
appliedto
temperature
a
a
littlebelow
94"
C.
and thick heavy precipitateis thrown down rises to the surface of the juice. The albuminoid and coagulated largelyrise to the surface,and are
(201" F.). A scum
matters
with
the acids combine salts. in the and in
The
scum.
soluble and
included part of the gums are juice b separated by subsidence
is termed
the defecation
localities the ''clarification''of the
modification
of the
ble insolu-
and
wax
clean This
decantation.
some
A
fat and
The
the lime to form
carbonation
process,
or
juice.
process
of
the
beet-
industry as regards temperature and limingconditions in combination with is frequently used sulphitation in of plantation white sugar, notably in Java. the manufacture sugar
An
identical
carbonation
process
was
worked
out
about
by the U. S. Department of Agriculture^ in experiments and sugar-cane with sorghum in Kansas at Magnolia Plantation, the Louisiana. Possibly originatedin Spain. process A sulphitation process devised by Bach, in Java, dififers 1886
from
the usual
one
in the addition
viz.: to the juice and "
See
the
report of the
of the lime at two
stages, sirup (concentrated juice),each Bureau
of
Cbemiatry. 38
CLARIFICATION
be filtered sirup may by decantation.
and
the
or
precipitatesmay
be
rated sepa-
of them processes and slightmodifications almost exclusivelyin the cane-industry.
used
those
prpcess for white sugar, by Wijnberg, all others in Risinga decolorizing carbon of great
differs from
bleaching
''Norit."
called
power
slightlyacid
defecated carbon
boiling with
cent
5 per
a
carbon
is added
is then
to
boiled and
(press-cake) is revivified
solution
it in
by rebuming
The
juice,which
filter-pressed.The
with
are
patented
recent
the
39
TANKS.
above
The
A
OPEN
Both juice being followed by sulphitation.
of lime
addition
WITH
a
soda
of caustic
kiln.
The
and
by
sionally occa-
sirup is filter-pressed
kieselguhr. differingradically from process,
the
others, has been an patented by Batelle and worked experimental upon scale. The glucose of the juice is destroyed by the action This enables the use of lime at boiling temperature. of A
the
Steffen
the
sugar
saccharate-of-lime the
from
in the
process
The
molasses.
of
recovery
is used
saccharate
as
in
ing heatin liming the juice. After beet-sugar manufacture and the glucose the juice is carbonated to decompose sulphited as in the carbonation factories of Java. have been used by many of substances A very largenumber and in purifying beetcane-juices. Von exp^menters list of
Lippman's is given on In
600
entries,
532.
page
hence
spores,
than
more
of the processes for the maintained temperature
none
high
the
these, comprising
purificationof the juice is long enough to destroy to avoid decomposition at
is necessary
care
later stages of the manufacture. DeTecatton
9. "
^ThiB is the process
improvement The
As
until recent
vessels
bottomed of the
of the
juice is pumped
raw
termed
years. from
as
the
bottom
juice,milk
of lime
and
is turned
steam
is added Into
the
and
the
the
to
has been
practbed little
.
mill-tanks
''defecators.'*
of
Tanks.
Open
industry,with
cane-sugar
defecator, is of copper
soon
and
in general use
early days
the
since
with
Clariflcatioii
and
the
The outer
defecator it to
space
to
inner
bottom
shell of
is covered
neutralize between
double-
the
the
iron. with acids
bottoms.
40
PROCESSES.
MANUFACTURING
The
regulates the
workman
time
that
of! and
'*
surface
the
covers
pressure juice the
boiling-point.The
its
nearly reached scum
is filled with
defecator
the
steam-
have
the
thick is shut
steam
of
subsidence
for the
juice is left undisturbed
the
the
cracks"
will
latter
moment
the
by
that
so
impurities. will
as
rise to. the and
the
properly gauged,
part of the
inapurities ''blanket,"
forming the
sciun,
of the defecator.
coagulates the
heat
and
albiuninoids
acids
the
salts with
soluble
and
insoluble
forms
lune
the
a
on,
the bottona
to
of the
action
The
with
surface
part settle
a
farther
described
be
required has been
lime
quantity of
If the
the heavy precipitatein settling and juice. The the impurities separated them with in rising carry scum the at in the defecation, leaving a thick deposit of mud of
the
defecator,
of the
bottom
of
blanket
a
the
at
sciun
surface
liquid,with .bright,clear juice below it. of the juice rises in the defecator the temperature When
of the
breaks, in the efforts of the air and
the blanket
and
escape,
defecators
time
the
filter-presses,the
charge-tanks to
the
series
a
and
cient Allowing suffiregular order. is ''cracking" for settling,the mud
the
after
off from
drawn
usually arranged in
are
juice in
filled with
are
"crack."
it is said to
Several
to
gases
or
of the
bottom
juice is
clear
into
defecator
and
sent
into
the
evaporator
run
finallythe
and clarifiers,
scum
to
the
is sent
presses.
skill. liming of the juice requires considerable is used, the impurities settle slowly, the If too little lime clarified juice lacks brilliancy,and the subsequent boiUng of the sirup and purging of the sugar are impeded. litmus also to A juice limed to neutrality usually settles settles rapidly,with slight overslowly. The precipitate or In the a juice. bright manufacture leaving under-liming, of The
raw
proper
sugar
the
lime
precipitate,but dark-colored
no
should more
sugars,
be
added
should
however,
long
so
be used. more
lime
In
as
making is used
required for the clarification of the juice. This prejudicialto the yield of sugars. In
the
manufacture
of
white
or
it produces
a
certain than
is undoubtedly
yellow clarified sugar
is
CLARIFICATION
WITH
41
TANKS.
OPEN
ft
using sulphurous acid, the to neutralityto litmus
The
be
limed
nearly
paper.
of the juice and the blanket appearance of the suspended matter in a observed as
motion tube
juice should
and
the
glas^test-
usuallysufficient guides for an experienced defecator The should move particlesof suspended matter
are
man.
surface
liquid at the sides of the tube, and descend promptly at the center, forming a compact These be tests cone. supplemented, in- daylight, may of very sensitive litmus paper. to advantage by the use rapidly toward
the
of the
be quantity of lime required in the defecation may ascertained by a titration of the juice with a standardized The
solution
saccharate
calcium
methods
other
or
acidimetric
methods.
work usually employed in raw-sugar only in and then control. a laboratory occasionally of the factory,the sugar-maker In conducting the work such quantity of lime to the juice as his experience adds Such
indicates tors
are
approximately correct;
be
to
been
have
may
it, by the
from
filled before
only,
eye
of litmus
he
or
heat
can
the
gauge
two
lime
three
defeca-
first and
the
for the
others.
in
daylight,he can test the juice and from this in the first defecator, immediately it is filled, test modify the alkalinityof subsequent portions of juice, until the liming is properly adjusted. As the changes of be well observed not litmus paper can except by daylight, be slightly acidulated phenolphthalein solution may a in testing a few used drops of juice in a white saucer. color reaction is plainlyvisible by artificial light. The in raw-sugar In liming juiceto alkalinity, work, samples of By
means
juice,filtered through
defecated time
paper,
with
time
to
a
solution
paper,
of
should
saccharate
be tested of
from
lime, in
a
precipitate is produced by the saccharate, lime should be used in the defecation,and, vice versa, If
test-tube. more
is
if there
It is the
the lime should be reduced. precipitate, usual practicein Louisiana to use the same tank,
no
coils and
fitted with and
darifier. that
is then
a
the
boiled
off the
The
steam-jacket, as both defecation is accomplished as not
blanket
a
is
immediately removed
briskly,the workman scum
that
rises.
This
at the
same
defecator
a
above
and time
the
cept ex-
juice
ing'^ "brush-
latter part of the process
42
liANUFACTURIMO
is
properly termed is
this word
the
applied to
PROCESSES.
''clarification/' though in Louisiana entire process.
the
In addition to the defecation clarifiers
darifier is clear
The
eliminators
or a
tank
it is boiled and
where
already described,
as
The
frequentlyused.
are
steam-coils
fitted with
juiceis drawn
process
from
ordinary a mud-gutter. into the clarifier,
and
the defecators
skimmed
and
is then
into
run
settling-
tanks.
English eliminators differ from the ordinary darifier in having a steamnnanifold, with the steam-inlet and waterThe
is thrown side of to one arradged that the scum handinto a trough, and the juice requires no the tank method avoids in skinmiing it. This labor boiling th*e with the juice while from the defecation mud clarifying. minute In the elimination a total boilingduring one process outlet
so
usually sufficient.
is
It sometimes
impurities separated in the settle promptly in the settling-tanks, that
occurs
clarification will not This
be due to the condition of the cane, may of sirup tank-bottoms usuallyarises from the admixture
subsiders.
or
but
juice in the clarifiers. Thorough agitation of the wise, layers of juice with a long-handled paddle or other-
the
with upper
or
more
spraying of the surface with cold water, will Cold water the impurities to promptly settle.
liberal
usually cause is
the
effective than to the surface
scum
modification
A
is
stirringof the juice. The
probably due
of the defecation
rise of the
the presence of gases. process consists in boiling to
to the juice and scirnis, instead of only heating them cracking-point, and running them into settling-tanks. All of the of the separated impuritiessettle to the bottom scum remaining on the surface of the juice. tank, no
the
In
oonneetion
is sometimes
the
diffusion process
accomplishedin
quantity of lime the
with
battery, and
is added
the
to the
the
diffusers.
The
at
requisite
their way
cane-chips on
the diffusion is conducted
defecation
a
to
high enough
The coagulate the albuminoids. caneall the of act as a filter, retaining impuritiesseparated chips hence neither in the defecation, defecators nor filter-presses are required. is used in liouisiana in raw-sugar Sulphurous ftcid-gas
temperature
to
44
PB0CBS8B8.
UANUFACTUBING
juic" entering the toward about
gallons should the
the outlet.
inchcfl
4
in
25
Bquare
of
actual
feet
writer
of
the
heating surface
below.
in
now
and
These
tanks
have
use
tank
While
a
it has
the advantage
In
tar
so
veyed The nde
deep
as
from
provide per
the
tank.
of
the
tank
bottom
and
of copper
in
rectangular
a
imately approx-
1000
U.
Hie to
coils
facilitate
the draw-down
requires of
a
described
arrangen^ent
be of very
may
tank, with
drfecating
large capacity. in
rather
excess
long
of 6000 time
for
yielding a small proportion
Many gallons.
settling, of mud.
possible, it is preferable that the juice be the
draw-down
outlet'^lbow.
8,
11.
woriiing capacity
a
be
ward for-
mud.
prefers
comers
should
and
the mud
to cany
coila should
The
Fid.
rounded
t^nds
juice capacity
of the
removal
rear
diamel^
well above
be
The
at the
tank
ddecators
arrangem"it with
a
through is shown
pq)e-4iius rather in Fig. 11.
cot^
than
AtAiaa,
ventilating pipe,F, lekdiugabove
the
CLOSED
HEATEBS
top of the tank.
CLOSED
AND
45
SETTLERS.
drawing down, the juice flows through the nipple,the elbow, A, and the cross valve,B, into the small collecting-boxand thence to the trunk line,D7~ The angleIn
before drawing down the valve, C, is opened for a moment that may have settled in the juice,for the removal of mud the outlet-nipple. The valves, pipe-lineor that may be near
B, C,
are
G is used
controlled in
from
the
The
working-platform H,
washing the mud
into the main
line to the
valve scum
It will be noted that the pipe is ventilated to tanks, E. prevent sjrphoning and that the juice therefore stops flowing its level reaches
when
pipe and
insure that advisable each
mud
no
that
be drawn
can
down.
juice shall be drawn
to
locate
about
of the draw-down
of the bottom
three
The below
from
four
or
elbow the
centers.
The
inches
above
the bottom
should
be about
nipple It is
scum.
draw-down
defecator,with difference of level of about between
and
pipes in inches,measured
4
pipe should be about 12 of the tank. The draw-down pipe
3.5 inches
lowest
in internal diameter
in
defecator
a
gallons working capacity. If the juice has been properly limed and heated, there is no probabilityof drawing down mud, provided a sufficient settlingtime is allowed. Ample tank capacity and proper supervisionof the liming are essential. Eight 5000-gallon tanks are sufficient for a grinding capacity of about 1400-1500 tons of cane per day. Defecation Closed Heaters and 11. Using Closed Settlers. 's Process. This vented inwas Doming process by M. A. Scovell in a sorghum-sugar factory. The purchased by Deming, who developed the procpatents were ess of
4000
"
and is
made
it available
in
adaptable to The juice is limed
in the
cold
in
Deming's
Milk tank. of single constant-flow juice'at the heater-pump intake and it in the pump juice is heated to
with
and
an
lime is
it parts with the
method
in
process,
flows
into
a
the
thoroughly mixed
in transit to the heaters.
approximately 235"
eliminator,where concentrated, and warms
into
This
practicalwork. factories of all capacities.
F. and the cold
The
limed
passed is slightly
is then
gases,
incoming juice on its way eliminator is a cylindricalclosed-ironThe to the heater. and is provided with a large vessel with a conical bottom tubes. Cold juice circulates heating-eurface in copper
46
FROCBSSBS.
BfANUFACtURING
through the tubes and condenses the hot
juice enters 'Is
vacuum
and
other
produced by
withdrawn
are
gases
the
air
juice. The
hot
with
tial par-
the
the
or
pump
a
system.
vacuiun
The
juice should be reduced here it is pumped From
of the
temperature
F. in the eliminator.
210"
from
is connected
part of the eliminator
upper
and
this condensation
the
A
of the eliminator.
section
the lower
set free when
steam
ii
settler
I
A
I
^
into the
A, of the closed
compartment,
outer
to about
pressure-separator, shown
or
Fig. 12. The oflfcontinuously from
diagrammatically in
^
mud
is drawn
the conical
bottom
and
the clear
the
central
of the
tank
at
C
juiceis discharged from cone,
B,
In
tories fac-
many
using Deming's heaters and the juice is heated to only settlers, 212"
to 218"
In
.
^
j_.
^^ W
.
.
his first
these
experience with
tanks, the earUest Cuba, the writer
of their noted
type that
in the
//
mud
^/
cating operating had an offensive odor, indiately decomposition. He immediinstalled very slowly moving
drawn
scrapers
mud
Fig.
F.
ofiF after several
in the tanks
from
to
prevent the
settling on
bottom
of
the
nearly
eliminated
hours'
separator
the and
conical thus
decomposition.
12.
Certain
resist the
perature high temof the heater and the decomposition. In cause Cuban to liquidateand clean practiceit is found necessary be practicable. (See 35.) the tanks as often as may 11a. Cleaning the Heatlng-siirfiices of Defecators. The heating-smfaces of juice-heatersand defecators usually incrusted with scale,impairing their efficiency. become soon
The
of copper-surfaces
the
spores
ordinary double-bottom
defecators
usually kept clean by washing with water and scrubbing after each use. Long-handled brushes, made of maize them husks, are used in Cuba in this.work. It may occur in scHoe are
SULPHITATION
localities that the laborers with
brushes.
In
with
.covered
OF
PROCESS
unwillingto clean the defecators
are
this ev"nt, the
water
muriatic acid
for use usually'sufficient
are
in
gallon defecator. "The heating-surfacesof coiMefecators juice-heaters foul
with
defecation
whole
but
little.
is
process
muriatic
acid
lightchain
and
the
dilute
circulate hot
to
follow
muriatic
which
the
require frequent in
defecator.
Juice-heaters usually foul very tubes
in
be
cleaning,as
When
the
cleaned
in
coils
by drawing
the surface.
over
cleaning is
1000-
in combination
Those
is used
may
cleaninga
used
conducted
cleaning. Dilute the ordinary double-bottom much scaled, these are very
of
should be
bottom
copper
strongly acidulated with hydrochloricacid the solution boiled. Five to six pounds of the commercial
and
a
47
LOUISIANA.
quickly. The
caustic-soda
this first with water The
acid.
soda
usual
solution and
then
may
be
solution
method
through with
hot
returned
storage-tank for repeated use, decantingit from the mud and adding caustic soda from time to time to maintain a strength of about 1 pound of soda to 7 gallons pf solution. to
a
Occasionally the scale in the tubes is of a very resistant and must then be removed nature by scraping the surfaces. is properly adjusted to the volume of the If the tube area juice, so as to force a very rapid current, the scalingis much reduced.
12.
of the
Sulphitation
PROCESSES.
of Loulsiana.-^This
Process
is
one
and when fully skillsimplest of the sulphitation processes conducted good, though irregular, produces a very
qualityof The
WHITE-SUGAR
IN
DEFECATION
cold
"near-white"
or
"off-white"
sugar.
through a sulphur-tower or and through a current of sulphurous
raw-juice is pumped
box, in opposite direction acid
gas.
The
to
juice should
absorb
as
much
of the
is followed by liming to possible. This sulphitation slightacidity to sensitive litmus paper and the juice is very tion th"i heated, settled and decanted, as is usual in the defecaThe juice is usually reheated to boiling and process. then brushed before settling. Evaporation to sirup follows. This brushing factories boil and brush the sirup also. Many gas
as
is
48
PROCESSES.
MANUFACTURING
since
it entails
large consumption of loss of sucrose. fuel and Heating to the boiling"pointis concentrated suU sufficient. The juice is also sometimes
is
a
wasteful
process,
phited. is
This
a
old process,
very
English or French colonies. has always been the custom
and It
possibly originatedin the is interestingto note that it
to work
the
coloration
sensitive
litmus
condition
corresponds to the essential
acid
the
of one
This
sugar.
of the recent
Java
thin-juiceprocess.
Reserve is very
box
prevent
to
juicefaintlyacid* to
(Louisiana) White-Sugar with
strongly impregnated cast-iron sulphuring-box
is
3 feet cylindrical,
of
Process.
"
The
juice
raw
sulphurous acid in cascade
the
in diameter
by
26
feet
a
type.
tical ver-
The
high. This
has sufficient
capacity for 2000 tons of cane per 24 hours. The sulphured juiceflows from the box into the liming-tanks, to it in sufficient quantity to milk of lime is added where reduce the acidity to the equivalent of 1.2 cc. of N/10 soda 10 cc. of juice,using phenolphthalein as an indicator. per box
juice is
The
next
heated
in
a
tubular
heater
to
212**
F. and
settling-tanks. through Deming's continuous have hot juice should The an acidity to phenolphthalein equivalent to .85 to .9 cc. of N/10 soda per 10 cc. of juice, and is then strictlyneutral to htmus. Phosphate of soda the to the juice flowing into the settling-tanksat is added 1000 rate of 1 pound per gallonsof juice. This phosphate and has the of soda is especiallyprepared for the purpose same aciiity as that of the juice. No lime is added to the it then
mild
flows
filtrate from the filter-pressing.The the juice flowing from the settlingto is added presses is passed through bag-filters.The and the whole tanks acidity of the juice remains equivalent to from .86 to .9 cc. N/10 soda per 10 cc. of juice. This is not sufficient for a high-grade sugar, hence the juice is again sulphited and the
preparatory
acidityis raised
to
to
1.2
cc.
juice is evaporated to a sirup of 54.3" Brix. The sirup is perfectlybright and itiscolor is a dark yellow. furthe* precipitationif heated to the boilingThere ?s no point. The sirup is boiled to massecuite, as is customary The
in
clarified
white-sugar manufacture.
SULPHITATION
AFTER
high acidityof the juice as
The
is
work
Harloff*s
compared with that
quite noticeable.
this is usual in Louisiana
49
LIMING.
in
previously stated,
As
practice.
This differs Liming. process from the preceding in adding the lime, in large excess over that required to neutralize the juice,before sulphitation. Approximate
Sulphitation
13.
after
"
gallons of milk of lime of 26.5** Brix is used, thus producing a very heavy precipitatewith the sulphurous which be readily removed acid and by setthng and may decantation. If a largerquantity of lime is used, e. g,, 10 to 12 be removed by filter-pressing. gallons,the precipitatemay 8
sulphitationis continued
neutralityto phenolphthalein. The decanted or filter-pressed juice,after concentration and to sirup, is usually cooled sulphited to slightacidity The
to
acidity equivalent to that required in
An
neutralize
25
to
30
cc.
of 100th
normal
10
of
cc.
alkali is
sirup
to
suitable
a
amount.
Bachused
in
Lime
Sulphitation Process.
8
Java,
is added
under and
"
the patents
This
process
of its
inventor,A.
is
extensively H.
Bach.
is
precipitated by sulphurous acid at and decantation two or stages, each followed by subsidence lime is used than in Very littleif any more by filter-pressing. the process described in the preceding paragraph. 5 to 7 gallons of milk of lime of 26.5" Brix is added From 1000 each phited to gallons of cold raw juice. This is then sulto neutrality to phenolphthalein and finallyheated in the to full boiling,settled and the clear juice decanted as The clear juice is evaporated to the ordinary defecation. density,approximately 55" Brix. customary sirup obtained
The
and
cooler
per
above
its temperature
factory's water lime
as
described
is reduced
supply. From 1000 gallons are now
16 to
added
is
to
17 to
passed through
about
that
of the
gallonsof the toilk it and
a
it is then
of
sul-
neutralityto phenolphthalein, or the full quantity be added to the sirup of sulphurous acid in solution may Since the volume of the sirup is about 30 prior to the lime. of milk per cent of that of the originaljuice,the total volume of lime used per 1000 gallonsof juiceis from 10 to 12 gallons. the foam phitation. Steam during the suljets are used to beat down The sulphited sirup is heated to about 194" F.
phit^
to
50
MANUFACTURING
(90**C.) and
PROCESSES.
The press-cakeis washed filter-pressed.
is
with
in the press and a large part of the sugar it contains is recovered. The filtration is rapid and the cakes are firm and water
well formed. The
filtered
therefore
sirup contains
heated
to about
**
195
bi-sulphites. The
heated
tanks, and liquoris decanted
and
some
bisulphiteof lime and
F. to
decompose
this and
is
other
sirup is usually run into settlingafter the deposition of the precipitatesthe clear cooled
and previously,
as
phited to distinct acid reaction then ready for the vacuum-pan. Bach's
is sometimes
process
is
modified slightly
by separating mixing and filter-
precipitatesby decantation and pressingthem together. This process requiresapproximately 0.055 the
sul-
phenolphthalein and
to
all of the
on
is then
weight of the
The
cane.
sugars
phur of sul-
cent
per
of
are
good
quality. PROCESSES.
CARBONATION
with which caneThe ease Preliminary Bemarl^s. and sulphitation juices yield to the ordinary defecation 14.
"
processes
retarded
has
it
Java, where
in
even
of the carbonation
extension
an
has
its
ess, proc-
largest application.
extensive Department of Agriculture conducted manufacturing scale with carbonation a experiments on and of sorghum-juices in Kansas cane-juice in Louisiana, writer was The active in this nearly thirty years ago. experimental work with Dr. H. W. Wiley, then Chief of the As the Government Bureau of Chemistry. reports, show, these experiments were satisfactoryfrom a manufacturing, but not financial point of view. They brought out the necessity
The
U.
S.
of carbonation
well below
60"
C, as is practiced in Java, though this possibly originated with now the French in the early Spanish installations. There
are
and twice lime
the
by
a
lime
In and
second
the
is saturated
double
removed carbonation
viz.:
processes,
carbonation,in which
gas.
is carbonated
followed
carbonation
all the added
the double
with
temperatures
distinct
two
single,in which
at
the
process,
in
one
tion, opera-
juiceis treated a
part
by filtration and in which
the
the
of
this
the is
remaining
52
MANtlFACTURING
forming the
carbonate
PROCESSES.
and
lime
and
that
foaming begins and
renders
then
viscous.
juice very
the
sucrocarbonates
forms
It is at
with
it increases
the
of
this stage increase
of
is
always danger of forming darkcolored decomposition products with the glucose when steam sucrocarbonates.
is used
There
down
beat
to
this
Further
foam.
there
be
shown
to
excessive
rise of temperature,
which
be
very
objectionable. The
carbonic
gas
of by the bubbles in the juiceand the violence of the frothingare indications with
lime.
the
sound
of the progress
the attendant
to
The
will later be
may
acid
bines 4;raduallycom-
made
of the carbonation.
of gradually rises during the progress the carbonation. During the early stage the temperature should approximate 46** C. and should nearly reach 55" C. is not used when all the lime is precipitated. When steam The
temperature
frothing,the rise is not sufficient for the final stage of the process. neutrality of the juice to Therefore, when is nearly reached, sensitive phenolphthalein paper very into the heating-coilsand the temperature is turned steam to reduce
is
gradually raised
lein paper heated order
to 65" C.
(Dupont
to 70"
to raise the temperature in It is necessary and the sucrocarbonates to facilitate up
C.
break
to
filtration of the
Finally when the phenolphtba^ paper) indicates neutrality the juice is
juice. The
attendant
may
note
approac"ing
of the neutralityby the "spoon test," i.e.,the appearance The precipitatesseparate sharply juice held in a spoon. the latter has an from the juice when alkaUnity equivalent to
approximately 0.04
per
cent
calcium
oxide
or
often
as
lime per litre. The expression "equivalent" stated 0.4 gram is used here because the alkalinityis partly due to potassium
hydroxides, formed by the action of the lime upon and potassium salts of the juice. The spoon*test the sodium be followed by frequent tests with the phenolphthalein must (Dupont paper) until neutralityto this paper is reached. paper The bonated juice is then heated to nearly 70" C. and is over-carand
sodium
during
a
few
very
lime
alkalinityarising from carbonic
the on
acid.
In
beet-juicesallowance
than
due
to
lime,
to
seconds that
to
has
not
practicingthe must
avoid
be
made
neutralize been
slight
attacked
carbonation for
the
by
process
alkalinityother over-carbonating. This is not
SINGLE
in
usuallynecessary occasional
work, but it is advisable
cane
to make
potash alkalinityto be prepared
for
tests
53
CABBONATION.
to
rect cor-
for it. The
is the
stage of the process
next
dressed are filter-presses defecation
with
cotton-cloths
heavy
cotton-cloths
Thin
process.
The filter-pressing.
are
in the
as
usually placed
Three suits of heavy cloth to protect it from wear. heavy cloth are usually consumed per five suits of the thin. the
over
is turned
Steam
into
off until it escapes of this
steaming
the
before
press
the
freely from
and
use
is not
juice-cocks. The
shut
object
is to
of destroy bacteria,which, on account the low temperature of the material to be filtered, would otherwise be very active in destroying sugar. carbonated The juice is pumped into the presses at pressures about
to
up
juice should
The
lbs. and
45
flow
should
filter very
rapidly.
freely from the cocks and the and tions, granular. Contrary condi-
very
press-cake should be firm sluggish filtration and a pasty press-cake indicate the of too little lime or an imperfect carbonation. The work use is the best indication
of the filter presses
the press
to
low
a
filter press-cake is
The
manipulations.
of correctness
usually washed
(See under
content.
sucrose
of the in
filter presses,
67.)
page
The
filtered
juice is sulphited,concentrated, etc., as in the
sulphitationprocess. De
Haan's
Single Carbonation
modification
Haan,
of the
carbonation
process
Klaten, Java, and. is in
his technical This
Process.
"
important
is due
in several
use
This to
J. S. de
factories under
direction.
fies consumption of lime and simplithe equipment without the quality of the sugar sacrificing product. The alkalinityof the juice is kept within very limits during the carbonation. moderate The raw juice is heated to 45"-50** C, and then a small stream
process
reduces
the
of milk
of lime
and
turned
into
carefully regulated so very closelyto has 35.7"
been Brix
added. is from
The 4 to
the
it. as
0.25
The
carbonic-acid flow
usual 5 per
cent
total cent
lime
are
and
taneously simulgas
is
alkalinityapproximating until all the lime required
to maintain per
of the
gas
an
quantity of milk of lime of of the volume
of the
juice.
54
MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES.
*
Approximately used
are
1000
p6r
carbonic-acid
of lime-stone and
20 tons
The
gas.
neutralityto Dupont The injectionof the is reached.
of
tons
and
The
into
carbonate
the
discoloringit. The juice is
from
is
gas-coke
continued
now
juice is heated
the
is continued
to
to 70" C.
rainute after
trality neu-
object of this over-carbonation
is
prevent particlesof lime
to
of
producing the lime and
carbonation
paper gas
in
cane
1.8 tons
that
one
have
been
not
converted
r^idering the juice alkaline
and
in the preceding process. filter-pressed as is approximately 1.7 square The required filter-cloth area feet in a frame-press per 1 millingcapacity-ton of cane per now
day. to sirup and, after cooling, juice is concentrated is sulphited to an acidity equivalent to 25 to 30 cc. of alkali per 10 cc. of sirup. lOOth-normal
The
filtered
16.
Double
methods
are
Carbonatioii based
upon
the
in
treating beet-juices. The
in
cane
factories
Process.
^All carbonation
"
original French double
differs from
the
process
process
modem
as
beet
used
applied method
only in the temperature of the operation and in carbonating to neutrality to phenolphthalein paper (Dupont paper). From 7 to 10 per cent by volume of milk of lime of 35.7" Brix is added is warmed to the juice,which 113** F. to about is then conducted The first carbonation (45" C). precisely method in the single carbonation as (15) up to the point when the spoon test shows a sharp separation of the precipitate chemical from the juice or a test shows about 0.04 per cent alkalinity. Shortly before this alkalinityis reached the juice is warmed to a temperature of nearly 55** C. and is then filter-pressed.Nothing would be gained by continuing the gassing to a lower alkalinitythan 0.04 per cent. With this alkalinitythere is no danger of redissolvingparts of the precipitates,the juice filters very freely and sufldcient lime is left for the second Lime the
may
or
may
first carbonation
juice usually contains error, the
carbonation not
or
be added
preliminary
saturation. to
the filtered
to
the
sufficient lime
gassing has been
pushed
too
saturation.
except far.
juice from This
when, through The
second
car-
harlopf's
acid
55
process.
thin-juice
.
bonatipn
proceeds
very
rapidly, without
foaming, and
is
The pushed to neutrality as in the preceding processes. juice is finallyheated to 158** F. (70^ tD.) preparatory to and before discharging from the tank should be filtration, gassed for a few seconds to prevent deleterious action of have been occluded in the particlesof caustic lime that may precipitates. The saturated of the condition of the juice,on account is precipitates,
shallow
filters or purpose
The
with
a
filter press
means
The
filtered under
frame-presses
pressure
with
low
very
of but
are
4
gravity pressure
filtering. object in conducting the
to
Gravity
pressure.
usually used for this 5 pounds. (See 24.) is the
more
economical
of
process
in two
stages and
the stronglyalkaline juicefrom the firstis the removal filtering that are tion. of substances or soluble; slightlyso in neutral soluAmong these substances are magnesia, usually largely derived
lime-stone,the oxalates and possibly other organic salts and substances, such as coloring matters, that held mechanically by the precipitates. are the second filtration are The precipitatesfrom usually and are mixed with the juice going to the first filter-presses from
the
subjected to washing with the press-cake. Sulphitation of the filtered juice from the second carbonaand as recomtion is practiced as in the previous processes mended by Harloff in the following paragraph, and it is concentrated then to sirup. The sirup, after cooling, is usually sulphited to an acidityequivalent to from 15 to 30 cc. of N/100 alkali per 10 cc. of sirup. thus
17.
Harloff's
Acid
Thin-Juice
Process."
Harloff's
experience in Java led him to a study of the influence upon the juice,sirup,and consequently the sugar, of various salts, and the especiallythe potassium sulphites and carbonates corresponding salts of lime and iron. These studies led to a juice or the general practice of sulphitingthe raw very carbonated juice to acidity to phenolphthalein in the Java factories.
The
writer
visited many
factories in Java
in the
and, with very few exceptions all sulphited to sulphitesirupto to acidity. It had long been the custom acidity,but not the juice. summer
of 1913,
56
PROCESSES.
MANUFACTURING
importance, Harloff ^ found that sulphitesdo not clarified juice containing glucose on heating and that
Of most darken
do.
carbonates in
far
BO
as
may
This
led
be
all the
the
to
natural
salts should
conclusion
that
converted
into
be
them. He sulphites,since it is impracticable to remove accomplishes this by sulphitingto neutralityto litmus,which corresponds to slightacidity to phenolphthalein. Further,
salts,if present in the
iron
in
carbonated
or
reduced
are
juicesby the sulphurous acid and in acid
so
salts
These
the ferric state.
raw
with
the sugar
Litmus
The
solution.
state
remain
crystallizeout
hands
the the
night
at
of
laborer.
a
of the Vivien
use
The
tube
is filled to
the
strument in-
Harloff
tube. Fig. 13, in beet-sugar
employed largelyin France
is
when
or
uncertain
therefore,is an
and
poor,
recommends
work.
salts do not
ferrous
in
which
colorless and
conveniently used
be
lightis
the
to the ferrous
in
acid solution.
from
cannot
are
juice,are
mark
zero
with
phthalein, potassium hydroxide containing phenoland sulphited juice is added until the red color is discharged. If, for example, the requisitequantity of juice to discharge the color N/100
25
is 10 of the scale 20
the Vivien
on
tube and
a
smaller
"
obtained, the juice is too acid and the be reduced. injection of sulphurous acid must should with Check tests occasionally be made juiceneutralized to litmus in daylight. Obviously control could be used, but this is not burette a quite so easy a manipulation as with the Vivien number
15=
10
"
5 =
is
tube, 0==^
recommends
Harloff
precipitatesbe
the
than Fig.
13.
above
the custom
with
work "W.
Norman
study
H.
an
Harloff'8
Th.
Rodger, of carbon
acid
London,
ation
and
the
juicemixed
heated
to
a
higher
C. (194" F.) in closed
90"
with perature tem-
heaters
ing foulingthe heating-surfaces.Heat-
this temperature
It has been to
of
account
on
not
that
should
for
a
be in open
great
many
juicesimply because "Plantation should
be
White consulted
sulphitation in the
cane
tanks.
years
in Louisiana
with
this condition
Sugar
Manufacture,"
for
a
very
industry.
thorough
WIJNBERG^S
and the color of the sugar is better,
apparentlywith
definite
no
Harloff's investigationsshow why this is true. clearlywhy the sugar is better.
idea
to
as
very
calls attention
HarloiT
evaporators, to
57
PROCESS.
NORIT
litmus.
the
on
that
also states
He
and
boiler-feed
The
side, when
vapor
this condition
under
the. corrosion
to
of the tubes
the
the
juice is left acid
return
waters
damage the tubes of the should
water
be
of the
are
ers. boil-
steam
rendered
acid
slightly
sulphitationis practiced. * Norit Process. The juiceis defecated
alkaline with soda when
Wljnberg's
18.
"
ordinary raw-sugar except that lime is process, added to slightlyshort of neutrality. Ten per cent or more the apparent solids in the juice,is of "norit," figuredon added to the decanted juice. The reaction of the juice to litmus must remain acid,and, if not so, phosphoric acid should The be added. juice is heated to boiling-pointand filterthe
in
as
is sweetened
pressed. The
cake
boiled
5 per
with
a
cent
caustic
washed, and is finallywashed norit is then ready for The is rebumed
norit
in
a
kiln.
manufactured
color,but 19.
a
Factories
of very
by a secret large part of the
Remarks
upon
After
several
uses,
the
sugar.
high decolorizingpower It not only process.
and
is
removes
gums.
White
Sugar
producing plantation white "near"
is then
sirup from juice treated the addition of kieselguhr and is
ready for boilingto white carbon
and
The
then
a
is usual
soda
re-use.
norit is filtered with
is
as
solution,filtered and with diluted hydrochloric acid.
with
Norit
off
"off"
Processes.
sugar,
with
few
"
ceptions, ex-
white
product as compared standard American refiner's with the granulated sugar. In occasional "runs," however, in well-equippedfactories, from refined the product is almost or quite indistinguishable make
a
or
sugar.
quaUty of produce a perfectly uniform in the factory owing largely to the variable purity of sugar with many material. the raw Judging from conversations by the carbonation producers of white sugar, that made uniform quality than by the exclusively processes is of more It is difficult to
Unt. .
relative
Sugar to
Journ., 1912, 720;
patents.
1913, 248
and
404;
1914, 488, all
r
58
MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES.
latter are
The
sulphitation processes.
usuallythe cheapei
processes.
is
There
a
rise in the coefficient of
marked
purity of the
This rise often exceeds juice in the carbonation prqcess. two degrees. It is a true rise and is reflected in an increased The rise of purityby sulphitation is not so yield of sugar. Haan carbonation and de claims that the latter great as. by than 2 per cent increases the yield of sugar more process than justifies the increased sulphitationprocesses and more over cost.
is considerable 'difference of
opinion as regards the of making as white a product from the very darkpossibility colored canes from the lightyellow and so-called white as The effect of the dark color is reduced by increase canes. There
in the
of lime
defecation
It is very produced from the
processes. are
attention
Great sugar
manufacture.
as
in the
carbonation
probable that the canes. light-colored
and
best white
Bach sugars
to detail is essential to successful white-
A
Uttle carelessness in the carbonation
sulphitationand filtration will result in a poor product. Double reduces purging of the sugars in the centrifugals the risk of stainingthe sugar through the necessarily imperfect removal of the molasses. Thorough cleanliness from start to finish is very essential;not only from the point of view of color, but also of yieldof sugar. or
SPECIAL
APPARATUS
USED
IN
THE
SULPHITATION
AND
ATION CARBON-
PROCESSES.
20.
These
Sulphur
Stoves
or
Ovens
and
Sulphitors. "
of two
general types: (1) Those employing induced draft and usually used in connection v/ith sulphur-towe or boxes; (2) closed stoves, Fig. 14, into which compressed air is forced and which deliver the sulphurouastoves
acid gas
are
under
pressure.
These
are
used
with
all types
of
sulphitors. In the first type the draft is
usuallyinduced by a steamejectorplaced on the sulphur-box. Air is drawn into the the burning sulphur and the sulphurous acid stove over is drawn produced by the combustion through the juice fallingfrom shelf to shelf in the box. The surplusair and k
60
MANUFACTURING
The with
Louisiana
usual
induced-draft
the
PROCESSES.
sulphitoris described
Sulphitation tanks
stove.
forms, but the usual provided with a cover
in connection
is
of
are
moderately deep ironand chimney to the outer air, tank suitable test-cocks,valves, and a tributing perforated pipe for disthe sulphurous-acid gas: The pipes and tanks should be arranged to facilitate cleaningat frequent intervals. is preferablyconical. Perforated pipes for steamThe bottom foam should be provided in sirup suljets to break down many
one
a
phitors. Where the tank is used to saturate large quantities of lime, as in Bach's process, intermittent work is advisable, and at least three tanks should be installed, otherwise a single tanks Two continuous be sulphitationshould be used. may used in this method, though one deep one with more very The careful manipulation will answer. juiceenters the first and is sulphited to approximately -the tank at the bottom desired
and
the bottom the
second
filtersto 21.
and
overflows
test.. It
the
enters
second
tank
at
ifesulphited to the required acidity. From the
juice flows through juice-heatersand the charge-tanks of the evaporator. tank
Carbonation-tanks.
iron and
should
be
"
than
The
carbonation-tanks
are
of
feet in
depth for the first otherwise should be provided with perforated carbonation or to break down foam. pipes f6r steam, carbonic acid or air-jets The tanks should have sufficient steam-coil capacity to heat and the juice quickly. The carbonic-acid juice-connections for should be large to provide A first carborapid work. nation should
more
requireabout
three to five minutes
ten
20
minutes
and
a
second
about
for the
gassing. led into the juicethrough perforated Formerly the gas was tions pipes. Such pipes always give trouble through incrustarecent In more of lime. practicethe gas enters through largepipe in the conical bottom of the tank and is deflected other device, so arranged as at intervals by baffle-plates or acid. There to insure thorough distribution of the carbonic methods of arranging the pipes to reduce the scaling are many and facilitate cleaningthem. a
carbonation
Continuous of the process.
email
and
with
The a
is advisable
quantity of lime suitable device
for
the
second
to be saturated
the
stage is very
outflowingjuice is
61
LIME-KILNS.
readilycarbonated continuous
point.
to the demred
carbonators
Descriptions of them
the market
on
There
several
are
d"signed for beet work"
will be found
in many
works
beet-
on
sugar.
If intermittent
Ume-kllns.
22.
kiln, as
machinery
all other
the
identical
The
kiln proper of
cone
is 25
from
specialcontinuous
a
carbonation devices
top through
to 30
sulphHation
and
that
are
kiln.
used
in beet-
and
of
kiln at
the
is fed
coke
into
the
conical
door. Three distinct self-closing in the kiln,viz. : (1) at the top, the fresh
a
maintained
and
unignited coke; (2)
and
dissociation
that in which
high and is the frustum end the small upward.
feet
angle with
narrow
of lime-stone
mixture
are
in
is obtained
manufacture.
sugar
a
acid
carbonic
^The
also
are
practiced,the tanks there is littlefoaming.
as
calcined by coke-fires
lime-stone This
"
is
carbonation
comparatively shallow,
be
may
second
at
the
middle
(3) below
zone;
the resultant
is the
A
zones
stone
combustion
combustion-zone
the
lime is cooled and
drawn
is
off.
'
usually built of the Belgian type in which the body is supported upon four short columns, leavingthe bottom stand and free for the discharge of lime. The columns open Kilns
are
Stone platform upon which the lime rests. this platform to support the kindling and mix'is piled upon and coke, when the kiln is put into commission. of stone ture the firingprogresses and the lime is produced this stone As is removed from time to time and finallyits place is tak^i concrete
a
upon
openings, by quick-lime. The kiln is provided with numerous having tight-fitting plates or doors, for use in watching the "scaffolds." of the firingand for breaking down progress draft is induced which The by the carbonic-acid pump, -
is located
A pipe the carbonation tanks. conveniently near leads the gas through a washer and scrubber and thence to
the
pump
The
gas
The the
which
discharges it into the carbonation-tanks. is thoroughly washed with water.
kiln must
lime
is
have
but
inlet for air,and
one
discharged. The
that
quantity of air drawn
in,"and,
therefore,the combustion, is regulatedby the speed carbonic-acid
pump.
It is evident
kept in thorough order and
must
that
work
this pump
with
where
of the
must
be
great regularity.
62
MANUPACTUBING
since the
of the
sucoeas
of dissociation
zone
PROCESSES.
carbonation
be maintained
must
essential conditions
The
above
depends
the
are
in its proper
deUvery of rich
of carbonic
acid and
30 pet
cent
gas
should
be
The
qualityof the coke and
it.
upon
The
place. ing contain-
gas
properly burned
lime.. The 276*
frequentlytested
described
as ^
stone
be controlled.
must
of kiln conditions following brief summary in the interpretationof analyses:
The
(1) The
oontainB
gas
oxide, and is indicated
at
a
point
a
If the combustion fast
too
low
between
the
is white
zone
of
will assist
little
oxygen,
of carbonic
percentage
the coke is too
or
large excess
a
in 275,
bonic car-
acid:
Leakage
and
the kiln.
gas-pump
hot the gas-pump is running The draw of lime should be
coarse.
increased.
(2) The carbonic
contains, too
gas
oxide
of lime
of stone
is excessive:
oxygen
nor
should
little carbonic add
be drawn and
coke
and
Smaller
pump
be
may
(4) The
contains
gas
quantity of incomplete and
normal, the coke is
fluctuating: irregularly.
and
The
combustion
acid
is converted
deficiencyof
of
account
on
acid is
of carbonic
excess
oxygen:
carbonic
slowly
too
an
too
coarse
contains
both
quantities
The mixture longer intervals. be investigated, the proporas tion
should
running
neither
at
of the latter may be too large. (3) The richness of the gas in carbonic The
and
of
and
the
into
other
oxygeu;
oxide
mal nor-
coke
is
monoxide
conditions
and
the pump
oxygen
and
being is running too
fast.
(5) The
gas
The
excess:
drawing The
circulation
American
forced
coke
and
the
in their kilns.
Java
Spencer,
"
Hand p.
qualities.
211, Also
The
in
sampler is
The
the
residuum
by the weight.
use
high-grade
cost of such
high
factories to substitute
oil-still residuum.
of 1 to 9.6-11 See
the
beet-sugar factories usually
ratio of 1 to 12 of stone
^
and
oxide
air.
some
metallurgicalcoke has
of the gas is slow
carbonic
cheaper
is used
Coke
coke
is used
gas-
in the in ratio
of stone. Book for
for
Chemists
o"
Beet
lime-stones
analyses of analysis of lime-stone,
this
Sugar and
a
work,
p.
Houses,'* discussion
386.
G.
L.
of their
PROCESSES
FILTRATION
AND
MACHINERY
"
Filtratiop.
23.
but
that
only
all
the
of
juice The
contains
fine
flocculent
addition
juice preparatory both
process,
juice and
the
the
In
varying
Sand
success.
filters but
sugars,
these
sulphitation
filtering medium
a
as
been
used
making
displaced by
with
results.
give good in
using
types,
many
have
used
been
have
none
filter-pressed. The
apparently
formerly
were
Bach
of
filters
filters
clarified
processes.
filtering media
other
or
Bone-black white
mechanical
years,
cloth,
sand,
be
carbonation
in the
carbonate
recent
the
may
the
upon
the
to
the
devised, but
been
sulphite supplies
precipitated calcium does
depending
In
sirup
process
obstructs
soon
processes,
practically successful.
been
has
ordinary
defecation
which
filtration,have
to
process
through
lignite,charcoal, etc.,
sawdust,
of
tates precipi-
carbonation
the
by
and
scums
the
matter
Several
cloth.
the
of
the
cane-sugar
filter-pressed,
not
readily filtered
clarified
juice
presses.
pores
be
may
in
With
defecation.
the
from
juice is
contained
portion
of
processes
clarified
entire
the
manufacture
usual
the
In
"
plantation ous-acid sulphur-
the
processes.
The
It is advisable
pressed. juice
and
thin
juice.
alkaline, 24.
kinds,
The
viz.
inside
:
(1)
of
filters, in which inside
of
the
Cloth
the
bag the
Filters.
"
filters,in which
Bag
water
outward;
filtration
be
usually
should
gain
to
Cloth the
the
residual
readily to are
the
outside
when
it. of two is from
filtration
(2) mechanical
is from
There
decanting
filters
in
both
the
added
in
clean
the
treatment.
filter-presses more
lime
Mechanical
a
settling it, and
and
mud
therefore
is
this
by
material
decant
There
by adding
of sugar
heating
again
mud
the
gain
additional
an
filtration
facility of
and
sugar
easily filter-
this
heat and
mud,
filtration.
to
preparatory
the
be
may
thoroughly
to
settle
"blowups,"
steam
is
juice tank-bottoms
and
scums
gravity
or
toward
bag. 63
the
64
PRQCESSES
FILTRATION
used
filters are
Bag
largelyby
and
outer
inner
an
and
in the
per
cent
mud
but
consists
little of
collects inside the
juice. Unless
bag it is evident that there is
the
refineries and
sugar-factory work of
more
or
The
bag.
of
case
MACHINERY.
filteringelement
Each sugar-factories.
in
AND
a
contains
this mud
an
bag,
about
80
is washed
large loss of
in with
sugar
these filters. filters
Mechanical
not
are
tion satisfactoryin the filtra-
very
The expense juicepurifiedby the defecation process. labor is very for cloth and large and the capacity of the filteris small. Bag-filters give better results for this purpose. filter may be used for filtering The mechanical juice from the of
carbonation, but
second
under
low
frames
ing work-
economical.
more
filter consists
mechanical
The
are
pressure
using shallow
presses
of
a
large niunber
of rectangular
Each bag or bags suspended in a closed iron box. independent discharge-pipe communicating pocket has an A
of it.
inside
the
with
metal
distender
collapsing. The clarified juice flows by gravity,under a low head, fillsthe box,
into
from
the
The
bags. time
from
mud
to
collects
mud
falls off.
time
the
on
The
is
pressure
to
sent
Filters, in
juiceand sirup are also be
may
The
used.
the
it contains
the
the
medium filtering is displaced with
filter will is
the
the
cloths
the
sand
mud
is
filters
for
Pulverized be
must
and
coke
of
grains
dog.
soon
clogged with
water
that
of the filter implies,
name
material filtering
size,otherwise
of uniform
When
As
use.
of
types
is fine, sharp sand.
filteringmedium
the
Several
"
filter
bags and
low
so
When the cloth. impacted upon foul, the flow of juice is shut off and the filter-presses.
Sand
25.
the
of the
outside
bags
filters into
and
is not
become
the
prevents
mud
the
the
juice
is then
sand
with hot water under or thoroughly washed pump-pressure otherwise, according to the type of the filter. After washing filter is
the
filters have
These the
again ready for service.
cane-industry. Many
have
been
26.
converted
Excelsior
Filters. "
The
used
been
with
of those
into the
moderate
installed
a
few
years
excelsior filtersdescribed
Filters, Bagasse excelsior filter was
Filters, etc. devised
in
success
ago
below. "
sior Excel-
in the Hawaiian
EXCELSIOR
filteringclaxified juice. A small tank, about dimensions for manipulatto 3 feet deep and of convenient ing about the filtering medium, is fitted with a false bottom
Islands 2.5
65
ETC.
FILTERS,
BAGASSE
FILTERS,
fcr
its bottom.
above
2 inches
A
jiice to the filter is connected and
tank's bottom
it at the
with
this inlet is placed
over
the force of the current
to break
pipe-linefor bringing clarified of the
center
small
baffle-plate and distribute the juice. An the upper edge of the tank to a
overflow-pipeis connected near lead the filtered juiceto the charge-tanks of the evaporators. filter is prepared for work The by packing it with the ordinary excelsior that is used in shipping merchandise. is placed on A wire screen top of the excelsior to prevent it from floating and to retain particlesof the material that might be carried along with the juice. A filter capacity of
approximately 1000
of
tons
cubic
150
feet of excelsior
is necessary
per
cane.
filters will
materially improve cloudy juice If the juice caused by defective Uming and defecation. has been properly limed and heated, but carries suspended These
cane-fiber,the filterswill greatlyimprove it.
and
matter
fenrentation
excelsior
the
of
advantage
An
not
serious
or
be washed
excelsior may
and
used
Fillers.
over
filter is its freedom
from
clogging with
precipitates. The in the filter or in an ordinary washing-machine and over again.
These
filters are
constructed
in
precisely the excelsior filters except that fine bagasse as the same way medium. When the filtration becomes is the filtering sluggish Bagaase
"
from bagasse is removed carrier for regrinding.
the filterand
the
material
This
contaminate it is
much
a
pulp
in have
a
and
defecation treatment gums.
ferment
to
juices during filtration. less desirable filtering medium way
found
Various
"
similar to a
small
with
little
process
by
some
fibers
excelsior.
are
For than used
Thin
and this
thus reason
excelsior. to
sheets
a
limited
of paper-
Granulated applicationin sirup-filters.
and
cork, asbestos used
great tendency
a
the
Filters y etc.
Fiber extent
has
the mill-
put upon
many
success.
cannot process
other
materials
have
been
Cane-juiceand
sirup by the be readily filtered, except after that
will
largely remove
the
66
FILTRATION
PROCESSES
old French
In ft very
AND
process, alcohol
sorghum-juice. Filtration
in
The
U.
MACHINERY.
used
was
followed
a
as
tant precipi-
without
S.
culty. diffi-
modified of Agriculture Department in adding an equal volume of strong alcohol to this process sorghum-sirup of about 55" Brix. A very heavy precipitate thrown down and was was consistingpartly of gums very The alcohol was recovered by filter-pressing. easilyremoved as is customary. by distillation and the sugar was crystallized forms of Centrifugal Separators. Several centrifugal separators have been brought out by inventors from time to differs from the ordinary centrifIn these the machine time. ugal in having no perforationsin the basket. The defecated of the mud juice without previous removal juice or even ^
"
(cachaza) is the
mud
The
basket.
into
run
the
is thrown
centrifugalforce and
The
of the
cost
machine
heat, oil,etc., are
the
to
the clean and
plant possiblythe
the
near
wall
bottom
of the
juiceflows
of
the
basket
by
the rim.
over
the expense
for power, loss of for the small extension
reasons
is good and the separaIf the defecation of this process. tion of the precipitatestherefore sharp, the centrifugalswill clean clarified
juice. 27. Filter-presses. Filter-presses are so generally used in the sugar industry that full descriptionof them is unnecessary. consists of number of iron Briefly,a filter-press a deliver very
"
plates and
frames
recessed
which plates over filtering cloths are placed. The frames and plates are supported oji and are' clamped together by a powerful a heavy framework the joints between the jack-screw. The cloth itself makes frames and plates. There two are general types of presses, the center-feed and
side-feed
The
hole
frame
or
center-feed
plates,with in
clamped There
cloth the
to
is
no
presses. up
opening in each
to
form
in the
of
and
heavy a
inlet channel.
the
plate at each
hole
made
are
presses
round
a
the
or
of these
cloth
in the
recessed
corresponding The
cloth
is
openings. frame-press. A
lug
projectsfrom each frame and plate and in each there is an Rubber opening to form the mud-channel. rings or cloth form between the the lugs. ''stockings" joints 1
See
the
reporto
of the
Bureau
of
Chemistry.
68
FILTRATION
of
capacity
PROCESSES
gallons
400
AND
cachaia
of
MACHINERY.
per
pr"es
hour
per
is
claimed.
KeUy
FUtcr-presa. filters
These
in 24,
filters,described
to the inside
outaidc
TTie Kelly, used
in
over
frames
with
a
netted mud the
Fig. 16,
the
latter into
the
discharge to
the
low
The press
at very
Sweetland takes
its
press, name
from
the
to
and to
time
and
mud
the
canal.
in
end
The door
of the rack
press-cake
or
the
is ad-
The
pressure.
juice flows
the
are
communicates
bag
the
and
be
placed
are
juice (cachaza)
for the removal
The
to
type
pipe-rack
eonaiderable
content
sucrose
require changing
Each
Muddy
cloths
time
mud.
"
of
type
filtration is from
Filter-bags
cylinder.
the
is opened
cylindrical body
mechanical
first filter of this
pipes leading
from
stopped
the
hs
suitable
upon
cylinder under itself to
of
far
the
manufacture.
filtered juice-canal.
attaches
washed
so
the
was
inclined
an
of
FUter.
bag.
a
suspended
in
to
is
in
of
cane-sugar
enclosed
Sdf-dvmping
development
a
are
SweetUmd
"
press.
The
through tion opera-
of and
the the be
may
cloths
infrequent intervals. Fig. 16, its two
or
"clam-shell"
parts
opening
type and
of
closiiig
69
FILTER-PBBS8ES.
the
after The
of
manner
with
hinged together,
cybnder
when
crimped-wire the
and
these
place in the filter body
connection
with
Variable
the
epacii^
is
for
provided
conditions.
filtration
closing of the
lai^e ^le be
may
The and
This
press
of presses
operated
at
and
the
the
wash-water
juice
in the
has
The
and
suit different
to
them
the
valve.
displaces the air
to
is then water
the
upon
the
filter-cakes
The
and
presses
hydraulic collects
adjacent
a
opening Several
It
mud
opened.
delivery,
accomplished,
one
filter.
cachaza-valve
removes
The
power.
through
until
is
in
filter.
the
separate
etc.
from
The
passes
valve cake
the
leaves.
continues
alightly separated. the
into
outlet-nipplea
the
quickly
time
same
clamped
be
may
leaves
using hydraulic
hiiuid
the
process
leaf
is easily and
the
screens
IQ.
Each
Uquid is forced submerges
cloths
the
nipple
these
over
with
glass delivery-tube,
cock,
outlet
an
they
of
composed
fittings outside
delivery
Fia.
ahut-off
that
water-tight
a
are
is fastened
arranged
so
form
to
with
provided
Filter-cloth
bucket.
Bemi-cyUndricsil membera
2
filter leaves
each
are.
Bteam-ehovel
gasketa,
The
screens,
latter
in
euitable
closed.
filtrate.
tightly
clam-shetl
of the filter compriaes
body
for
the
outlets. but
are
closed
and
displaces
large part of the
sugar.
^ 70
FILTRATION
PROCESSES
AND
MACHINERY.
washing, Uie cakes are partiallydried by compressed air,if so desired,and the lower half of the body is swung open and they are discharged. Steam or compressed air may be After
used inside the leaves to loosen the cakes from
coating of of the
cakes.
is
A
the cloths facilitates the
kieselguhron This
the cloths.
applied
discharge suspension before
in water
filtration begins. in Dlffnsion-worb:. Disposal of the Skimmings ^The skimmings from di"Fusion*juices sometimes cult diffiare to filter-press. A simple meth6d of their disposalconsists in returningthem to the diffusion-battery. A measured volume, approximately 10 gallons of skinunings per ton of cane, should be added to each cellof cane-chips.In drawing the juice from cells containingskimmings, allowance must be If their volume. the not made for skimmings are ton must 10 gallons per than settled,considerably more is practised be added to each cell of chips. If this method in diffusion-work. be dispensed with settling-tanksmay The The sooner the skinunings are disposed of the better. if rendered slightly skinmiingscan easily be filter-pressed alkaline and heated to the boiling-point. Many chemists and sugar-makers question the advisability The of returning the skimmings to the diffusion-battery. objection urged is that under the influence of the longof the impurities may continued some high temperature in the defecation. be redissolved and may be reprecipitated not culty with cane, diffiIn the early days of diffusion-work the sometimes was experienced in filter-pressing houses of the skimmings; this led to the adoption in some is a plan of returning them to the battery. This method with the costly filtervery attractive one, as it does away and a heavy expense-item for cloths and labor. presses Moreover, the loss of li to 2 lbs. of sugar per ton of cane avoided. contained in the press-cakemay be almost entirely To what extent the advantages of this process are offset by 28.
"
the
possibleand
juicehas 29.
not
been
probable return
even
of
impuritiesto
the
estimated.
Reclarification the
of
Filter-press Juice.
filtrate from
sugar-makers return and defecators;others clarify
the
presses
"
Many to
the
resettle this filtrate separately
RECLARIFICATION
mix
then
and the
filtrate
This
last
the to
juice the
greatly
it
with
directly is
an
may
mud increase
FILTER-PRESS
OF
the the
to
clarified
appear
(cachaza) the
to
be,
scaling
of
practice, if to
of
the
the
lime
has
filtering.
tubes
others
of
the
pump
evaporators how
matter
no
especially
preparatory
still
juice;
charge-tanks
objectionable
71
JUICE.
clean
been Such
added filtrates
evaporator.
REAGENTS
CHEMICAL
JUICE.
Lime.
30.
There in
use
several
are
with
ground
water
to
liming
(2) Dry
slaked
juice preparatory is
to
from
prepared
circulating. This the
both slaked
in
heavy
paste.
The
preparation
The
in the
the
reducing large
so
lime
retain
15"
Baum6
the
to
of
tors defeca-
kept
constantly generally throughout (4) The settle
to
linae
and
is drawn
water
is of great
is
form
off.
a
The
too
are
much
the
full time be
water
conditions
be not
allowed
added,
slaking-tanks
The heat
importance, especially Essential
sugar.
that
temperature.
to
as
the
When
season.
density
A
factories slake
to
custom
the
been
the
lime
that
form
of the
reaction
for thus
should
and
be
promote
slaking.
the
1
and
allowed
of white
manufacture
reaction
is
TvitK
in the defecators.
use
of the
properly slaking
in
very
supernatant
paste is weighed for
it
of
lime
industries.
then
and
This
pumped
which
beet-sugar
large tanks
is
is used
method
and
cane
in
is mixed
powder
of
is_used sprinkling
by
defecation.
the
and
quicklime
pipe-lines,
through
sifted
slaked
be
method
prepared
(3) A milk
in Cuba.
is also used
is
for
lime (1) Quick-
must
juice. This
The in
juice
follows:
as
which
powder lime
use
cost
is lime.
preparing this substance
the
heaps of lime.
on
lime
fine
a
moderate
of the
cane-juice
before
water
Cuba.
in
of
of
agent
treatment
of
methods
defecation
the
is
for the
i
1
effective
most
found
been
has
that
^The
"
THE
PURIFYING
IN
USED
The
milk
with
water
list of
proposed
several for
use
of Louisiana the
was
and
hundred in sugar
lime
in
were
advance
reduced, then
very
after
passed
substances
manufacture,
and
of
small the
slaking, through
on
page
was
grinding to
fine
combinations
is given
it
a
low
screens
that 532
72
h
73
LIME.
into
second
a
filled.
and
tank
so
allowing
After
few
a
settle out, the supernatant
to
portions of the strained milk The
tank.
the
in
repeated until further
slaking even
filled.
been
alternate
two
added
to
filled with
three weeks
or
were
already
settling were the heavy lime-
frequently noted
indications
after the tanks
description is given
This
the paste
drainage and
were
has
author
The
containers
days for the hydrated lime drawn off and fresh liquidwas
were
all the tanks
paste.
until all the
on
to
of
had
emphasize
the
importance of the time element. The lime used in t^Jie purificationof the juice should be The magnesia and soluble silicates of the lime pure. very in the defecation
used
is made
mention
However,
form
processes
farther
on
scale in the evaj- orators. of the satisfactory use
containinglargequantitiesof magnesia.
of lime
quality of the lime-stone used in the carbonation process rich in silica tend is of great importance. Certain stones others have "scaffold" in the kiln,and hydraulic properties,
The
to
resulting in
an
almost and
of lime-stones
comments
factories.
Hawaiian this
coral beach-sand
from
shows
source
cent;
lime 91.7
made
for the
these
92.5 and
The
Cuban
of two
of
content
sands
calcium
burned
in
coral sands
6.6
would
oxide, 6.0
and
4.5
(dry) gave The
cent.
per
a
produce lime
containing per-cent magnesium oxide
cent
factory, Island
Paia
the
in the
extent
some ^
etc. silica, following information
1.6 per
of Beet-
following analysis of lime from Silica 0.18 per high magnesia content: cent; magnesia 4.15 per cent. Analyses
Cuban
cent
per
to
The
author
carbonate
magnesia first of
per
for Chemists
is used
amples Ex-
their characteristics
on
"Handbook
given in the author's Houses," p. 211. sugar are
Lime
impervious filter-cake.
rotary kilns
relative
of
Maui, H.
with
coral
to
T. *:
temperature
sand
is from
"Coral
sand
control.
is
Danp
preferred,since the temperature at which dissociation dioxide takes place is slightlylessened in the presof carbon ence of steam generated from the moisture." sand
is
"Coral "
Spec. Report,
"Planters'
contains
sand
considerable
July, 1913, Expt.
Monthly
(Hawaiian),
Sta.
Haw.
magnesia Sugar
Nov., 1909, 444.
Planters*
which Ass'n.
is
74
objectionablein the defecation owing the heating-surfaces. Further, a
to be
usually presumed its
depositing,upon portion of the magnesia to
increase
The
large elimination defecation was good, the yield of
the
output
5.45
per
and
saw
showed
a
molasses
of of
cent
in
in the double
magnesia Sulphurous
30a.
the
from
the
inates
use
Acid.
white-sugar chapter,
the used
in
raw
Aside
carbonation
process.
The
process
elim-
"
This
58.
page
except in Louisiana.
heavy
clarification.
the lime salts and
thus
It also the
reduces
"
freely in the
massecuites
than
vacuum-pan
up
duces prochanically me-
of
some
viscosityof the sirup and
Sulphured sirups and
massecuites.
breaks
in
is little
reagent
bleaching effects the sulphurous acid precipitatewith the lime which assists
in the
more
defecation
in 1913
its
from
a
contained
lime
juice. ^The production is described
manufacture
sugar
The
writer visited Paia
The
filtration in the
sucrose.
satisfactoryand
sugar
small.
was
magnesia." lime
coral
alkaline "
consequent loss of
Agricultural Co., Paia factory, of the magnesia in the press-cake.
Maui
of the
would
remaining in the molasses
output with
the molasses
experience
The
USED.
REAGENTS
CHEMICAL
those
boil
made
much
without
this reagent. Carbonate
31.
begun
have
rather that
Caustic better
are
with
the
lime, objectionable. The
very
as
neutralizing molasses.
in a
ferment
to
than are
of Soda,
beneficial effect when
Soda.
neutralized
latter
The
with
soda,
produces soluble
soda
salts
carbonate
are
salts
also
useful
apparently
into the pan
taken
^Juices which
"
in
has
boiling string-
sugars.
Carbonate
of soda
its salts in sugar
from
de
Grobert
to
a
^
found
52
equivalentsmore part
wa,s
states
incomplete precipitant of
an
solutions.
that
the
of soda
of the soda
neutralized that
per
cent
In
a
addition
sirup in the proportion about
A
is
of
precipitated81
remained
in
a
series of experiments of
carbonate
its equivalent
of the lime.
The per
free state
"
Eighth
of soda
Cong.
App.
is used
in
Chem., 8,
of
of
lime
addition cent
and
by the organic non-sugar.
if carbonate
lime
of
cipitated pre-
of two
the lune.
the remainder M. de Grobert
juices,sirups 21.
soda
etc.
76
REAGENTS
CHEMICAL
acid
phurous zinc
with'
these
Among
facture.
calcium,
(made tin
or
clay,
tin
salt,
or
alumina,
muriate
of
this
material
is
hydrosulphites
is tin.
of for used to
of of
hyposulacid
sulphurous sodium
and
of
etc.
acid
Kieselguhr
barytes,
are
reduction
the
dust),
washes
centrifugal
substances
by
Hyposulphurous
USED.
yellow as
juice
a
or
used
in
The
bleaching
last
named
molasses, is
also
also used
sugars.
filtering sirup
medium.
greatly
The
facilitates
addition filtration.
in
EVAPORATION
OF
Multiple-effect
34.
sirup and kettles
the
over
sirup fire
a
in
or
these
high,
or
the
steam
to
the
being
in so-called
from
of
form
the
according
the
to
standard
of
fitted
calandria the
tubes. The
This
large
tube
second
is
pan
H.
pan,
calandria
the
^
of
means
See P.
of
pp.
350
a
and
381,
"
film
but
to
in
film,
thin
a
which
pans
by
it boils
the
calandria,
vapor-space
The
and
The
the up
of
center
juice back the
through
"down-take."
the
is
vapor-space,
with of the
the
Juice
the
nected con-
steam-space
second of
vapor-space
large pipe with
Evaporatin*?
the
steam.
the
or
steam-
a
which
through
carries
as
'*pans" with
In
large vapor-pipe
a
tors evapora-
consists triple-effect,
provided
tubes,
is called
the
answer
deep layer,
a
and
"calandria."
third.
the
by
connected
the
the
above
in
surrounded
are
large tube of
is
each brass
the
part
by of the
which
a
inches
evaporator,
or
termed is
will
evaporator.
of
part
lower
space
in shallow
the
generally used.
most
cylindrical vessels, termed
and
is
steam-drum
a
of the
copper
juice circulates
the
ducted con-
which
of
apparatus,
few
is
evaporation
liquor is boiled
of the
lower
with
factory,
description of which
the
from
more
or
The
depth, whereas
vertical
three
pennit.
two
vacuum
a
book,
type
''effects"; the drum
of
type
molasses
or
sugar
of
few
times, according
duty
triple-effectis
varies
was
by but
and
price of
conditions
open
boiled
nearly disappeared
factories
the
liquor
a
do
forms
in
depth
have
evaporator.
of this
to
modem
to
the
esses proc-
multiple effect in the
evaporator,
4 feet
3 to
The
made
various
purposes
to
local
"standard''
this
the
where
of
type
small
where
is in
the
processes
very
old
evaporated
was
in which
pans
places
evaporation
The
the
in
except
is very
In
in
juice
the
In
"
point of crystallization, in
These
only used
are
the
the
to
by live steam-coils. and
Evaporation.
sugar-manufacture,
of
JUICE.*
THE
with
pan
the
third
condenser
Heating,"
and Prof.
by
Creighton.
77
W.
78
EVAPORATION
The
vacuum-pump. exhaust steam
juicein
from
the
of condensation
water
OF
JUICE.
is boiled
first pan
the
various
flows
THE
and
pumps
through
a
trap
by
the its
engines and
to the boiler-feed
water-tank. The
generatedin
vapor
in the second, and
sirup in the third circulates
that
the first pan is used to boil the juice generated in the second to boil the
juiceis fed into the firstpan and reaches the third,the and finally, fast as the' evaporation of the as
The
pan.
from
pan to pan juice being admitted
thin
the removal
and
water
of finished
sirup permits. A
vacuum
is*producedin in the
the third pan by the pump and condenser and first and second of the by the condensation pans
vapors
in the calandrias in each
of the
second
third pans.
and
The
the working upon of mercury 5 to 7 inches conditions, but is usually about in the first,14 to 17 in the second, and 26 to 28 in the third vacuum
pan. travels
By
reason
from
depends somewhat
pan
differences in the
of the to
pan
and
pan
evaporation in the first pan in the the
second, and
third
is either
pan.
drawn
directly pumped
produced
hot
enough
to
second
the the
to
of the
water
calandria
of the
boiler-feed
in
boil the
boil the
third
tanks, and
juice the
liquor
sirup in
second pan,
that
pan or
of
is
the
is also removed
third pan These
vapors
condensation
into to
the
in the
those
The
are
the
vacuum,
by a pump. usually termed
*'
pumps.*' sirup continuously by pan of a pump, the workman regulating its density by means the steam-pressure and the quantity of juice in the first pan, the liquor from the third pan. the rate of pumping and Valves are provided on the pipes connecting the pans to pumps
are
is removed
The
from
the
sweet-water
third
regulate the flow of the liquor. is sometimes The somewhat fied modiprocedure described These pipes by the use of Chapman's circulating-pipes. are
like inverted
are
of such
cient
to
syphons connecting the liquor-spacesand
length that the
empty
them.
vacuum
They
are
in the pans
arranged
to
is not
sufl[i-
maintain
a
constant liquor in the pans without the use of other than those for the juice and steam in the regulating-valves
level of
first pan.
These
pipes
rapidlythrough the tubes
cause
the
liquor
of the calandria.
to
In
circulate
very
operatingthe
MULTIPLE-EFFECT
the workman
apparatus
that
state
uniform
requisiteto satisfactorywork
of
in the third pan
vacuum
with
inflow
less It is perhaps need-
the first pan.
on
very
a
only to regulatethe
needs
juice and steam-pressure to
79
EVAPORATION.
is
circulators.
these
rapidityof the evaporationin multiple-effects of juice with the vapors. less entrainment there is more or This juice is recovered by leadingthe vapors against baffleplates,usuallyin a greatlyenlarged section of the vapor-pipe. The enlargement of the pipe reduces the rate of the travel and of the vapors permits the deposition of the entrained to the
Owing
juice. This device is called a "save-all." of two Multiple-effectevaporators are constructed four three pans called a double-effect, a triple-effect, a
The
etc. quadruple-effect,
this
apparatus in
outlined
of descriprtion
the
higher combinations
With
is worked and
is the
based
are
under
of
the
triple-effect. the first pan triple-effect,
the
the
within
is that
standard
it,instead
of
a
vacuum,
"pressure-pan."
calandrias
for the removal
pressure
a
is called the
The
than
for all and
same
pans
all types of
which
principle upon
pans
of
multiple effects
of the
incondensible
removal
of these
provided with pipes
are
A
gases.
gases
because
careful supervision
only the heating-surfaces,
is necessary,
not
they reduce the efficiencyof The gases contain but, further,they frequentlydestroythem derived largely from the decomposition of the amida ammonia .
juice,and partlyfrom
of the The
should
anunonia
ends of the copper It
vapor
tubes
practice in
is the
largelyin
be
the
other
nitrogenous constituents.
removed, since- it attacks in the steam-space
the upper and ruins them.
beetnsugar industry and
the
cane-factories of Java
to
utilize
a
very
part of the
generated in the firstvessel of the multiple-effect and,
also a part of that from the second quadruple-effects, vessel in juice-heating.Vapor is also sometimes supplied in and in convertinga tripleboilinga calandria vacuum-pan with
effect
into
"robbed,"
a or
quadruple effect. "extra
steam"
When
is taken
the from
first vessel
is
it,largerheating
provided in its calandria than in those of the vessels. other Frequently a pre-evaporator, to increase for juice heating, evaporative capacity and supply vapor
surface
is
etc.,is used in connection
with
the
multiple-effect.
80
EVAPORATION
OP
JUICE.
THE
of the first effect heating-surface
The
is sometimes
double
the
requirements of the evaporator so as to supply the extra The of heating are juice heaters in this method vapor. usually of the closed return-tube type. This use of the vapors extends double^ffect heating to the juices and, in some instances,even
to
Preheaters
part of the massecuites.
a
(Pauly-Greiner) their
cane-industry, though extensive.
This
in
to the
made
^
Deerr
the
at
sugar
a
and
complex
very
of salts of both
amounts
alkali. may
a
Hence
a
juicesshould with
suffer
detectable
no
ing destroy-
with
factories
half hour's
a
be safe with
another.
one
at
120"
It would
be
cane-
of free
juice
conditions
(Hawaiian
heating
loss of sugar.
With
he
variable
very
acids,and
weak
that may
local
conclusions
obtaining in
system
strong and
inversion
usually prevailing in
other
consisting of
one,
temperature
serious
cause
to fear of
or
is
of exhaust-
large amount
among
arrived at the following: (1) "The
juices is
the
that is necessary. Noel high temperature study of the effect of high temperatures in solution
cane-sugar
upon
in
beet-sugar factories
usually available in cane-factories
steam
little used
VCTy
use
be due
may
are
Islands),
C. (248" F.) conservative
adopt this temperature as the highest to which cane-juice should be subjected during evaporation, though under a to
careful 125"
of control
system
C.
(257" F.),
or
and
even
observation C.
130"
a
temperature
(266" F.) for shorter
permissible." (2) "The products is possiblesince it occurs be
periods, might cane-sugar
at
evaporation and
C." the
(3) "The
use
preheater system
After
a
rational
the
taneously instan-
high-temperature
of
evaporation and products is possible
control."
concentration
of the
multiple-effectevaporators, settling- and
almost
of
of
house
also the sterilization of all cane-sugar under
sterilization
"
125"
of
it
storage-tanks. A
juice
is
to
a
pumped
considerable
sirup in the to combined
quantity
of'
soluble in the thin juice are insoluble in plentiesthat were the sirup. A part of these impurities deposit th^nselves the heating-surfacesof the evaporator, forming a hard upon scale. Those which renaain in suspension are removed by im
*
Bui.
36, Expt.
Sta.
Hawaiian
Sugar
Planters'
Ass'n.
MXTLTIPLE-EFFBCT
the
This material
be
cannot
usually pumped
is very
above.
rich in sugar. it is
therefore readily filter-pressed,
the defecators
to
mentioned
tanks
that collects in these tanks
sediment
The
in
decantation
settling and
81
EVAPORATION.
to be diluted clarifiers,
or
by decaatation. precipitateremoved of pumping the sirup directlyto the settlings Instead tanks, it is often first boiled and skimmed, i.e.,clarified. juice and
with
the
of white sugar, probably beneficial in the manufacture of sucrose, but at the expense through inversion. The glucoseratio of the sirup rapidly increases during the clarification, is
This
and
the
and
scum
the
the
sirup to its be
must
removed
would
of the
that
faster than contains other
cane
The in
Its
composition
in
and
The
third
The
and
most
tubes
pan
a
very
poor
somewhat
with much
very
always
which
with
those
of the
contains triple-effect
of lime
2d Pan, Per Cent.
3d
Pan,
Per
Cent.
56.98
2.02 3.25
Silicate of lime
7.86
the
oxide
Combustible
matter
tubes and
may
be
scraping
tedious
method,
15.02
7.49
0.54
1.65
4.68
19.55
9.93
0.71
7.02
11.32
11.27
13.31
1.53
2.31
2.58
7.79
7.43
39.26
54.34
20.37
13.41
11.04
5.08
by moistening the scale with This
surfaces.
therefore
the
is
a
Prinsen-Geerligs, Kobua
very
laborious
followingis usually used,
applies also in cleaning the coils of the "
Cent.
2.03
cleaned
the
4thPan, Per
1.92
of lime
Silica
and
a
scale.
57.85
of lime
Carbonate
and
varies
of the first pan,
of
obstinate
of lime
Phoflphate
water
evaporators
it is
as
following analyses of the scales indicate their tion composithe different pans of a quadruple effect: ^
Sulphate
The
of the
localities forms
some
IstPan, Cent.
Iron
3rieldof
the
as
by rapidly heating
tubes
Per
Oxalate
far
juice, scale little compared
pans.
thickest
the
on
frequent intervals
at
in others.
thin
the
as
realized
be
forms
of heat.
conductor
approximately sirup from
boiling-point.
which
scale
purity
results, so
better
that
is concerned,
The
of
have
derived.
are
It is probable sugar
rise to the surface
that
coefficient
same
they
which
foam
vacuum-pans.
Ar chief, 1900, 694.
*
r 82
EVAPORATION
The caustic of
into with is
soda
boiled
per
iron
and
water
afterwards
enough
be
The
soda
alkali from
solution
cleaning
is
to
always
evaporators
then
about
a
week
it
acid
is
usually
be
used
the
will
be
necessary
strong if
treatment
usually the
which
acid,
should
This
pans
washed
are
pans
At
condition.
solution
from
muriatic
a
pounds
soda
run
taste.
with
two
to
This
The the
tubes
keep
the
of
the
give
the
end to
scraping.
solution time
one
dilute
with
to
good
Reason
thorough
from
the
The
sewer.
of
in
manufacturing a
the
intervals
at
of
is
and
boiled
acid
very
level
store-tank.
into
heating-surfaces
tubes
hours
JUICE.
solution.
of
foot
then
run
to
repeated
cubic
lead-lined
or
the
containing
several
during
an
above
to
solution
soda
the
is
filled
are
pans
THE
OF
may
time
as
it
boiled and
becomes
under
pans.
repeatedly, weakened.
atmospheric
caustic
adding The pressure
soda in
84
The
formaldehyde. should the
fill
mixed
be
ing's
closed
juice
always
tends
added
through
the
in
the
to
the
of
be
also
and
tank
are
the
to to
organisms
not
killed
due
The tinae.
short
a
which
from
eliminator
Dem-
mixing is
formaldehyde
The
juice!
in
thoroughly
in
difficulty
the
and
standing
after
to
held
satisfactory.
entirely
not
pump-tank,
heaters
may
walls
due
with
decomposition
it
pumped
is
The
separators.
lodge
that
by
upon
heat.
the
{See
11.) The
writer's
juice,
the
of
saving breakage juice,
due
labor
with
would
usually is
juice
indicated in
the
In and
the
in
above.
evaporation.
to
It
This
the
were
large of
event
of
the
insignificant.
barrels
practically
the
deterioration
is
employ
there
very
in
sugar
of
tion deteriora-
as
of
view
slight
formaldehyde,
advisable
deterioration
slight
sucrose,
of
often
formaldehyde be
of
inversion
machinery,
the
of
cost
fuel,
and
preserved
The
to
a
formaldehyde.
fermentation.
of
of
of
presence
probably
indications
no
indicated
experiments in
even
was
the
starting
on
juices
preserving
decompose
be
possibly
usually
than
is
to
formaldehyde
also
immediately
juice
in
separators
may
the
the
formaldehyde
of
use
the
with
preservative
the
of
quantity
defecator.
The
This
measured
SIRUP.
AND
JUICE
OF
PRESERVATION
is
it
in
all
so
small
larger
that
it
quantities
disappears
from
CRYSTALLIZATION
The
36.
Vacuum-pan. of
concentration of
more
This
largely reduced of
a
vacuum-pan
strike-valve The
roof
and
condenser
the
to
of the
by
of
type
or
been
have
facilitate the
to
in
bottom and
The
pump.
velocityof
large, that
the
slow, thus
reducing the
is fitted with
and
has
large door or discharge of the sugar.
for the
a
is connected
pan
cylindrical
vertical
a
large vapOT-pipe vapor-pipe or by a
a
directlyby the
pump
conical
a
bottom,
the
dome
or
usually
steam-coils
copper
at
cent
per
could
water
the
evaporation is conducted
is
iron^,with
of
number
a
45
in
single-effect.
The
cast
eirup obtained
of
further
sugar
in
vessel, of
SUGAR.
but multiple-effect,
vacuum-pan,
modem
The
"
content
in the
the
THE
juice still contains
the
water.
graining
OF
with with
and
small
save-all
a
vacuiun-
a
pipe,according
vapor-pipe is usually made the
be
may
vapors
entrainment
of
very
comparatively
sirup. Hhe
is
pan
to provided vsrith eye-glasses or lunettes through which of the boiling liquor, and a proof-stick observe the progress
also
removal
the
for
the
that
arranged
of
is
which
produced by the
is said to be of the ''wet and
water
condensed
of the
pump
and
separate The
pan
thence
pipe as
vacuum-pans
in
a
a
from
and
torricilian the
removed
described are
are
and
flow
tube
by the
condensing-
with
when the
air is led
using
condens-
"leg-pipe"
or
to
a
hot
off in
as
pump..
usual
These
pump
passed through it. The
factory. The
is of the
used.
all of the
special condenser,
''dry system,"
ing-water through well
vapors
of
vacuum
The
condenser.
when
so
temperature
decreasing the
and "
is
apparatus
the
vary
pump
system
ctmdensed
the
are
vapors
of
can
panman
boiling liquor by increasing or
the
a
The
samples.
test
form.
vary
Various
in the
extent
85
types and
,
86
CRYSTALLIZATION
of
arrangement
of the pan,
Sugar
Grain.
to
of
absence
or
use
boilingmass.
of the order
In
"
of the
relation
the
in the
and
the circulation
to promote
Boiling
37.
SUGAR.
heating Hurfaces,in
the
height to the diameter
specialdevices
THE
OF
facilitate
to
and to familiarize the chemist descriptionof pan-boiling, with factory terms, a few expressions used by sugar-boilers the
will be
first
the cane, those
in expressionsdiffer somewhat refiningbranches of the industry. Only These
given.
beet, and
will be
in cane-work
given: The concentrated juice is called "sMp'* or "meladura," is used the latter word is Spanish and by foreigners in The and other Cuba trated concenparts of Spanish-America. form of crystalsand molasses the ''massecuite," mass when boiled partly with sirup and partly with molasses, or customary
"mixed
massecuite," and
When
portion of
a
remainder
from
"strike."
a
the pan
and
the
footing or nucleus upon which to boil another There "cut." a strike,the portion so left is termed is some confusion of the word in regard to the use "cut," as this Word for the massecuite removed use sugar-^boilers many from
the
Where
is left
strike is removed
a
called
boilingis
each
two
suitable
more
or
with
These
another
one
called
are
modem
the
a
stage, diluted molasses it is said to
side
by side they by large pipes, with from
massecuite
to
one
"cut-over
practice, when
sirup and
"cutting."
worked
are
pans
valves, for drawing
certain of
pirocess is termed
connected
another. In
The
pan.
often
are
a
as
pipes." grained strike
is drawn
be
into the
"boiled
in,"
reaches
instead
pan
"boiled
or
a
in
on
grain-sugar." When
the
liquor in the certain density and is more to haVe
fs said or "weak"
reached
is still further
connection
with
the
closed, shows
valve td
cover
a
the
concentrated
less saturated The
modified,
with
proof may or
less
will
as
be
is started, and
pump
and
coils.
to
it
sugar, ' '
"
strong
density.
be
a
This
explained
in
of
of 15 to
is opened
been
boiling molasses-sugars. boiling sugar is as follows: The
vacuum
vacuum
has
of greater
the of
process
"
proof.
expression The
or
liquid is
the
as
"
pan
20
inches
sufficient Steam
of
when
mercury,
sirup is drawn
is turned
into the
the tlie
is
pan
gauge
charge-
into the coils ahd
pan
tlie
SUGAR
BOILING
proof. The quantityof sinip the boiler wishes "to grain" high whether In making fine-grained sugar he will grain
sirup is rapidlyconcentrated used
depends
or
upon
in the pan.
low
needs
he
high,
as
room
for their
crystals and
many
At
are
this
The
stage there
concentration
sample into
with
is
condenser
procedure:
(1)
ciently liquor is suffi-
the
is indicated
as
sugar,
increased
now
coils reduced, thus
the
until
is continued
by the proof-stick. The
drawn
the
of
methods
two
are
supersaturated
on
comparatively little
and more successivelyclosed, anii as it becomes concentrated, the portions projected against the eyeglasses flow more and more and increases the slowly panman of decreases the quantity water denser injected into the conuntil the liquor boils at the desired teftiperature.
coils
or
to
grained growth; on the contrary, in making coarsehe will grain low, and form few crystals. sugar of the upper the liquor boils down, the steam-valves
As
more
87
GRAIN.
TO
and
of
watet
the
by a injection
steam-pressure
coolingth^
boilingmass, increasing degree of saturation,and forcing minute crystalsof These to form. ing accordmanipulations vary somewhat
the sugar
the
to
but
in
of
sugar
itself and
vacuum-pan
quality of
the
(2) The
described.
the
sirup,
method general are as of graining is that usually employed in the United States. of the liquor is continued The concentration until crystals
there the a
separate, sufficient
are
of
sugar
crystalsrequired are
the
After
the
formed
to
time
at
the
of
produces since
all ol
once.
formed, sirup is drawn as
that
temperature
sirup. The first method grain than the second,
crystals are
time
from
pan
consider^
panman raises the
crystalshe
uniform
more
the
when
injectsmore
and
pan
and
second
water
into
evaporates.
the. This
to charging of the pan with sirup, and Judging just when skill and charge, requires much practice on the part of the
boiler
in
order
to
the sirup when surrounding the will
be
termed
formed -'false
mass
secure
the
is too
must
grain," and
results.
If
concentrated, with
crystals too and
best
be
rich
in
sugar,
remelted.
where
formed
injects the liquor
fresh
crystals crystals are
Th^se at
he
a
late
stage
through carelessness of the sugar-boilerand are not removed, they impede or even prevent the curing of the sugar in
r 88
the the
OF
CRYSTALLIZATION
THE
SUGAR.
False grain may be formed by charging centrifugals. massecuite with the too or sirup, by cooling freely pan
sirupsurrounding the crystalsis rich in sugar and of such densitythat it is supersaturatedat a lower temperature. of have been not if sufficient number crystals Also, a formed when grainingthe strike,there is great risk of the formation of false grain, after the crystals to have grown largesize. If the false grain is formed and not removed at this stage of the boiling, the sugar be purged of cannot False grain is gotten rid of by raisingthe temmolasses. perature of the pan and drawing in additional sirup to melt the fme crystals. is evaporated, sirup is As already stated, as the water while the
drawn
into
the
The
pan
time
from
time until the
strike is
kept very free,t.e., of c""nparativelylow density,until the crystalsare large or the pan is about two-thirds filled. At this stage it is gradually boiled the end of the operation,thus dryer ioid dryer until near impoverishing the molasses surrounding the crystals,and finallythe massecuite is evaporated to an apparent degree Brix of about 93, and is then discharged from the pan. should be as cold as possibleat this stage. The massecuite of estimatingthe proper moment There are various methods the massecuite, i.e., for striking dischargingit from the pan. This is usually determined by withdrawing a sample with the and forming it into a conical heap upon the proof-stick with the finger. The consistencyof this massecuite, thumb rate of flattening, etc. are noted as shown by its appearance, in this way and a practiced man can by the sugar-boiler, limits when to drop the strike. judge within narrow must be observed after each During the boiling,care the mass to force sufficiently charge of sirup to concentrate the crystalsalready present the sugar to deposititself upon finished.
massecuite
to
is
,
and causes
not a
to
form
new
of time
waste
concentration Unnecessfiry
ones,
and
with
sirup,employed with but not applicablewith all,is by means vacuum-pans, many After the formation of the grainthe charge* of a "set feed." valve is opened and so adjusted that the flow of sirup into the pan justcompensates for the evaporation. The opening A
method
of
charging a
steam. pan
BOILING
of the
valve
is
adjusted
varies, with
density of the a
the
minute
many
has
been
from
the massecuite. massecuite
boiling a
from
sugar
should be formed
so
of very
charging, with uniform quality
low
a
yield of
obtain
to
An
false
crystals,from
as
tration concen-
massecuite.
the
it, the full number
the
grain sugar
maximum
of
crystalsrequired the crystalsshould be of
graining,and
at
the
as
steam-pres""ure, the
method
melted, results in
that
yield of
in
This
time
graining,produce a good yield from very
irregulargrain, with
In
to
of
and
not
time
variations
sirup, etc.
the first method of sugar,
from
89
GRAIN.
TO
SUGAR
false grain at regular size. Of course, The formation be avoided. stage of the operation must any of too few crystalsresults in rich molasses, since there is not moderate
and
sufficient
crystal-surfaceto take
increases
the
very
risk of the
boiling a strike a
on
a
the
up
formation small
very
of
nucleus
cut, there is also risk of false
small
exhausted The
false
soft,white
or
grain or in
maintained
be
to
of
noted
will be
are
sugars
with
or
on
partially
a
the
of
in the boiled
in the
customary
chapter
whether,
sugar,
practice also differs to
respect
temperatures.
on
sugar-refining, 119, page refineries,
F. in the American
at 180"
Similar
inversion.
no
in
Java
massecuite
superintendentprefersrelativelylow temperatures.
Java
hard
American
raw.
or
that
from
somewhat
As
grain. When
of massecuite
during boilingvaries with the desired grade of
The
besides
molasses.
temperature
hard
and
sugar,
but
lower
white-sugar factories
temperatures
are
of Louisiana.
stated,are boiled at high temperatures, but also be produced at moderate they may temperatures from should be sirups of low densities. High-test raw sugars Hard
as
sugars,
grained
at
temperatures
approximating
should be continued high temperature well developed. The temperature may latter part of the
strike to promote
160"
until
F., and
grain is
the
lowered
be
reduction
the
of the
in the
purity
that surrounding the crystals. Massecuites be further crystallizedeither in motion (crystallizer
of the molasses to
are
in tanks
massecuite)
or
at
temperature
as
possible.
In
making
a
rest
very
soft sugar,
should
after
be
boiled
at
as
low
the temperagraining,
90
CRYSTALLIZATION
OP
THE
SUGAR.
low boilingmassecuite should be maintained as possible. Low-pressure pans, having large as i.e., pans of below 10 lbs. pressure, steam heating-surfaceand utilizing usually preferredfor soft-sugars. are of Sugar-boiling. Methods Pan-room 38. tions. Definiof the
ture
"
Raw
"
designate their
and by the letters "A," "B" "C," number them, to distinguishthe grade
vacuum-pans or
and
often
manufacturers
sugar
not
themselves.
the pans
employed in boiling the of fts proximity account
grade
same
to
is
pan
a
in
a
of
fineries, re-
cuite masse-
usuallyalways
in
of sugar
certain mixer
usuallytrue
but this is not
A
in
as
and
refinery on
a
set of centrifugals,
factory.
into pan complications introduced practice by boiling-inmolasses, it is simpler to designate massecuites With
by
the
rather
n"Un"3
boiled' with
was
and
molasses all the
pahs
thfere is
the may
"third."
and
pure
third
confusion
some
massecuites
are
boiled
strikes
The
with
first strike of
second in
the
in
with
first
present
molasses, hence
nomenclature. of
cuite masse-
with
At
molasses.
part with
return
only
numbered
were
cane-sirup,the second
boiled
be
when
Formerly
boiled, the
"straight-sugars"were "first,""second"
numbers.
than
When
three
molasses, the writer
prefers the following designation for each: containing only sirup or sirup and massecuite
(1) First a
very
cuite, masse-
little first
high coefficient of purity. (2) Mixed massecuite, containing a footing of and a large proportion of first massecuite from first pan a This is of medium molasses. purity, approximately 75** to massecuites will produce the same 80**. The first and mixed (3) Second or crystallizer massecuite. grade of raw sugar. is of low purity,usually of 60" and upward. This massecuite This
molasses.
factories but
In many case
is therefore
that
of
The
the
two
second
a
massecuites
of
are
boiling is termed
first massecuite
boiled,in "mixed"
in this method
or
which
ond." ''sec-
is reduced
to
purity with first molasses. of pan-boiling Utilizingthese definitions,the methods applicablewith rich tropicalcane in raw-sugar worl^ will be methods described. These are rapidly extending in Cuba about
75"
and possibly elsewhere. The
boiling-backof
molasses
"has been
practiced ih Louisi*
92
CRYSTALLIZATION
OF
SUGAR.
THE
diately after leavingthe vaeuum-pan^ the
grade of
same
and
and
should
produce
widely different is purged crystallizermassecuite
sugar
molasses
of
purities. The second or after remaining three or four days in the crystallizers.This massecuite be sold as seconds, or yields a sugar that may be converted grain" sugar it may preferably,since it is a into sugar equal to the firsts by double purging. noted that in boihng-in molasses this should It should.be be accomplidied after no more sirup is required by the strike. be free of sugar-crystalsand should be The molasses must '*
than
warmer
to
a
the massecuite
density of about Boiled
MassecuUes
largelyin the upon
a
54"
sirup. Grain
which
In
"
and
formed
of
method
a
practiced
the strike is started
Java
string-sugarmingled with
build
to
be reduced
It should
temperature.
pan
""Seed."
Islands
magma
upon
called ^^seed."
Brix, at
with
Hawaiian
footing of
in the pan.
is
in this way
popularly
be made good grain and test may in this way, and without remelting of string-sugarthe factory produce a singlegrade of product. may The writer has recently introduced a slightly different
method
of
A
of
sugar
boilingwith seed
in Cuba.
The
difference
is
only
grain-sugarobtained from the second or crystallizer strikes is mingled with first molasses to is used preferablyas a footing in This magma form a magma. startingmixed strikes which are finished with first molasses, in the
source
but
it may stored in without
pan
used
also be
The
in first massecuites.
with motion, and crystallizer,
another
from
is
magma
is
following is is boiled
a
without
pan.
convenient
molasses, except when second (mixed) massecuite is boiled
massecuite.
from
molasses
The
method:
pan
purity is very high. A third (crystallizer) A strike The
The
always available loss of time and in this respect is preferableto cutting a
massecuite The
of the seed.
on
this
a
The the
sirup
is boiled.
footing
massecuite
first
of
is
first final.
crystallizer sugar,
unwashed, is mingled with first molasses and in the as a mixed serves footing pan upon which to boil first molasses. Working with cane of very be necessary high purity, it may to mingle the crystallizer sugar
with
second
molasses.
grade of product of
very
This
method
strong grain and
produces any
a
single
desired test.
METHODS
'
OP
BoUing MolasaeS'Sugara. In
many
"
for the process
93
SUGAR-BOILING.
of crystallizationin
not equipped factories, motion, after two crystallizations
in the vacuum-pan, the molasses is boiled to what " is variously termed string-proof,""smooth," " blank," etc. The
is first heated
molasses
in
a
blow-up tank, i.e., a tank
perforated steam-pipes instead of coils. This of melting such crystals of sugar heating is for the purpose have as passed through the sieves of the centrifugal may often for further machines, and purifying the molasses. with
fitted
sugar-makers add lime to the molasses at this stage neutralize its acidity;others use caustic, and still others
Many to
The
of soda.
carbonate
acidity and
if added
salts,at least
lime
to
into
the
and
pan
determination
Carbonate
with
experience, with
to
matter
is
soda
and
ently, appar-
The
advantage.
boiled
of this
string-proof,it is simply drawn
to
down
to
the
tests
finger and
a
required proof varies with
density.
proper
density,by the usual
the "string" between judgment requiring much
drawn
the
up
of
the molasses
the
lime.
boiling molasses
In
quantity breaks
extent.
some
author's
the
is.preferable to
soda
sufficient
into the pan
frequentlydrawn in
in
neutralizes
of soda
carbonate
and
of
The
sample
a
is
thumb,
a
The
experience.
the
purity of the molasses and kind of containers in crystallizingthe used the sugar. from In this crystallizationat rest, as the distinguished of crystallizationin motion, the crystals modem process
slowly settle to the bottom becoming gaining slowly in size,never formed
in
range
polarizationfrom
quality pan-boiUng.
the
89"
The
to
of
"
not
the
boiled
molasses
the
A suitable
to
and
densityfor
90*, apparent
car
or
tank,
large. Such sugars 90", varying in test with
the
skill
displayedin
the massecuite
is
the
mately approxi-
Brix.
mixed
from
strikes,boiled on footings of grained in the pan, though boiled with molasses,
sugars
massecuite are
of
80"
of the
"
in the
sugars
Molasses
term. to
"
molasses
stringtest
"
sugar
and
commercial
is obtained
crystallizedat
from rest.
acceptance' massecuites Such
sugar
crystaland is permeated with molasses. The mixed strikes are grain sugars, and when well boiled are equal has
a
soft
"
to
first sugars
"
except in color.
94
CRYSTALLIZATION
OP
Crystallizaiton in Motion.
39.
used
in the
SUGAR.
THE
^This process
"
first
was
turers beet-industry. Cane-sugar manufacslow in abandoning string-sugarmethods, and were when the strikes were first introduced crystallizerswere into them. boiled blank and run As the name implies, this consists essentiallyin keeping the crystals of a process massecuite in motion while completing the crystallisation. The best results are therefore obtained in pushing the cr3^8tallization
European
and oompracticablein the vacuum-pan pleting it in the crystallizer. * that A theory of the process with the writer's conforms is as follows: If the crystals of experience with cane-sugar so
massecuite
far
is
as
be
kept constantly in motion
and
be
brought intimately in contact with the sugar still in solution, this will deposit upon the crystalsalready present rather sugar reduction than form new sudden of ones, provided there is no a
temperature
to increase
the
supersaturation.
Manifestly it
each impossible to produce a stirringdevice that will move crystal independently, in the heavy, viscous massecuite, to be brought into entirely new environment, so that it may in supersaturated with fresh portions of the sugar contact solution. of motion Further, there is little possiblefreedom for a crystalin a dense massecuite,since the film of molasses is
separating it from
its neighbors is but
a
few
thousandths
of
crystal gradually takes on the in its own immediate neighborhood, reducing the density sugar and viscosityof the molasses surrounding it,and in its increase of size it approaches nearer fresh source of sugar. a Great long exist, since inequality of density cannot the inch
an
in thickness.
stronger solutions
near
by diffusion.
The
by
The
must
motion
mix
with
of the stirrers of the
by rocking the crystals,promotes uniform
fall of temperature
of the
crystalsis
crystallizationcontinues. the
"
crystal size
'"
ceases
Crystallizationof
Int. Sug. J., 14, 284.
sugar
to
A
of the
tion solu-
lizer, crystal-
this diffusion and
in the massecuite.
of temperature, the saturation the growth
the weakened
solution
With
the
a
fall
resultingfrom
changed to supersaturation and point is finallyreached when
increase.
This
in aftei-product
is due
massecuites,"
to
H.
the
vis-
Classen
CRYSTALLIZATION
cosity of the medium
IN
and
95
MOTION.
lack
of
supersaturated this point is reached, the massesolution of sugar. When if preferred with dilute cuite should be diluted with water or Diffusion is again possibleand the crystallization molasses. dilution must be repeated from time The again progresses. is preferableto molasses Water to time for the best results. as
a
diluent
the above
From should into
since
be
to
has
massecuite
should
while
solids to the
massecuite.
that the massecuite
discharging it
be diluted
not
with
molasses
should
increased
begin the moment the viscosityso much With
longer progresses.
readilybe
may
a
high density before
Dilution
no crystallization
condition
add
not
very
vacuum-pan.
fall of temperature the
to
remarks, it is evident
and crystallizer
the
in the
boiled
it does
not
the that
practice this
determined in
in motion
of the by observation the crystallizer.It is able prefer-
by dilution of the massecuite rath r than by boilingto low density. method of boiling massecuites for crystallization in The and preferredby the writer is described in the motion three to
diffusion
promote
**
There three other methods are methods," page 91. of operating,but they have not been entirelysatisfactc ry he has in the author's experience,except the second, which
massecuite
used A
to
limited
a
gKainstrike
a
and
account
on
is usual and
as
hot molasses is mixed
of
with
of about
a
a
local condition:
(1)
part of it is discharged 90"
Brix
is drawn
into
the massecuite
ing. remaining by boilWhen the mixing is completed the strike is discharged is discharged crystallizer.(2) A strike of mixed massecuite
the pan
into
is boiled
the pan;
from
extent
into
and crystallizer
mixed
with
of string-strike density that is flowing from higher temperature and moderate of molasses and string-sugar (3) A magma an adjacent pan. into the pan and heavy molasses is mixed with it is drawn as
a
a
in the first method.
of forming always great danger in these methods writer has used the second method in a false grain. The factory deficient in pan capacity with a fair degree of success. is difficulty in mixing the molasses with the massecuite Thwe Thare
or
is
magma
Among the
older
in these processes. the
advantages
methods,
are
a
of crystallizationin motion
saving of
labor
and
over
floor space,
96
CRYSTALLIZATION
OF
THE
SUGAR.
the production of grain-sugars and the ability cleanliness, turing promptly to liquidatethe factory at the close of the manufacNo
season.
the next
massecuite
need
be
carried forward
to
thus
avoiding loss by fermentation. ^The apLaboratory Control of Crystallizationin Motion. parent Brix and the purity coefficient of the massecuite should be determined to control the density of the massecuite and of molasses. the admixture A sample of the massecuite should be purged in the laboratory apparatus immediately after leaving the pan. The molasses this should be from tested for purity. The immediate molasses from a sample have of 60" purity in the Tropics should of masscuite a purity below 40**. A fall of at least 20" from massecuite to molasses further fall in purity to be expected. The may final molasses depends upon the condition of the cane, and will be less in the Tropics than in Louisiana. The Louisiana and therefore the initial purity of matures cane never the juice is never as high as in the Tropics. The total fall in purity in the Tropics is from 55" to 60" and in Louisiana A final apparent purity number of 25" may from 50" to 55". while the cane be expected early in the tropicalseason is season,
"
immature.
Crystallizers.The "
are crystallizers
of three
types, works: (1)
littleused in cane-sugar This is a horizontal cylindrical vessel crystallizers.
the third of which Closed
usual
is now
trol powerful spiralstirrer. A water-jacket for conwith the Bock of temperature was provided original httle used in cane-sugar These jacketsare now crystallizers. These are simply open tanks factories. (2) Open crystallizers. of half-cylinder cross-section,fitted with stirrers as in the These closed closed type. (3) Vacuum are crystallizers. vacuum-connections and a crystallizersprovided with This is in fact crystallizer steam-jacket at the bottom. with forced circulation of the a slow-boiUng vacuum-pan
fitted with
a
massecuite. The
large extension of present-day factories has led
discharge of the massecuite
through in the pans
to the
the pans into the crystallizers air-pressureis applied pipe-lines.Moderate from
to force the massecuite
pipe-linesshould
have
an
through the pipes. The
internal diameter
of not
less than
_i
SOLIDIFIED
97
MOLASSES.
if the erystallizera are IncheB,especially
14
located far from
the pans.
used
CrystallizerBare firstand
mixed
to
massecuites
for the
extent
some
pending
storage of
opportunity to purge them. the point of view of the crystallization, From it is to use at this stage to further excrystallizers haust unnecessary an
the molasses.
Solidified
40.
this to
The
Molasses."
far
the
as
product is produced only in Java
British India
for arrack
Molasses
apparatus. and
is first
formed, writer is inand
for
ment ship-
manufacture.
of soUdified
manufacture
skimmed
So
molasses
**
requires no "
blown-up
with
special and
steam
is then
simply evaporated to dryness in an operating with a very high vacuum. ordinary vacuum-pan The proof-sticksamples Serious frothing is Uable to occur. tested by cooling in water. The cooled sample should are the characteristics
have a
molten
mass,
hot
very
The
into
run
solidifies
and
covered
are
is
described
below.
The
vacuum-pump
molasses, while
it is
tops of the baskets
burlap for shipment. should be operated for
with
dried
baskets
closelywoven
cooling.
on
The
a
short time after
the pan from to partiallycool the shutting off the steam molasses. Cooling by the circulation of water through the coils is also practiced. Gases are produced by decomposition, therefore the
to break
The
should
be
not
commercial
for this product specifications
solid molasses
(1) The
shall break
fracture; (2) it shall sink in water; indent
to
with
the
whether
^
the
the
results to
a
as
upon
follows:
(2) The
dry substance.
dependent
hard
too
the
before
and
to
extent
the
be
(1) There
temperature.
1
during the
of
a
after
ash
mine deter-
to
occurs
basis
originalmaterial, assuming it were
clean
a
(3) it shall be
solidified molasses
dry substance analyzed the molasses
calculated
conclusions of
examined
loss of
He
with
are
fingernail.
J. J. Hazewinkel
and
stopped until ready
vacuum.
usual
follows:
as
the pump
facture. manu-
drying,
content
constant.
is considerable
of His loss
decomposition is (3) The reducing sugars of the
Archief. 1912, 20, 181.
98
CRYSTALLIZATION
in part pass that
to
reducingHBugar and
of both
SUGAR.
(4) It is possible is due
dry substance
loss of
extent
some
THE
organichoh-sugar.
to
over
OF
organic
position decom-
to
(5)
non-sugar.
equal parts of dextrose and levulose are decomposed. and levulose it is* view of the proportions of dextrose
About In
probable that' polymeiization of dextrose
levulose
to
takes
place during the long heating. **
41.. Froth boiled
Fermentation/'
the sides of the containers. or "
termed
only in the
of
that
hours
some
recent
the
of
cause
"
froth
have
we
are
run
over
ately begin immedi-
may
pheanomenon
fermentation.''
is
It
is
fairlydefinite knowledge
a
It is not
foam.
bacterial
is, to
foaming
or
and
foam
striking. This
"
that
years
The
after
fermentation
massecuites
they often
high temperatures
at
^Wh^
"
activity, but
to
due
fermentation, decomposition of to
the
certain salts. Herzf eld Lafar's
acids, the
^
results
of the
recently shown
suddenly when
Kraisy explains the
C.
65"
until
crystals catalyzes its liberation.
of sugar
massecuite
the
(149** F.) is
by the
phenomenon
remaining in supersaturated solution of
dioxide, is
(sugar-beet) foam
of about
temperature
a
results
that
invert-sugar with amino
Massecuites
foaming.
of
cause
dioxide
the reaction
on
has
Kraisy
glutamic acid, splitting off carbonic
e.g.,
reached.
that
states
in
carbon the
mation for-
The
cosity vis-
Herzf eld
foam.
also
states, always referringto the beet industry, that foaming since the introduction
rare
in
The
This gas.
is to pour
reduces
observed
the
of
water
not
in
foaming
will stop the
the
upon
surface
have
usually fpam.
The
md^ssecuites.
cane
of
in
the
not
a
cane-sii^ar
of the massecuite.
facilitates the been
escape
of
heated
above
conditions
same
beet-sugar manufacture
in
foaming.
stopping foaming
that
provision for
be uncovered
phenolphthalein for rosalic acid
viscosity and
massecuites
Cane
156*^ F. do
have
method
usual
factory
of
Lime
alkalinitytests.
of
is
should crystallizer
A
those
as
probably the
are
the
cause
always
preferably should except while discharging by air-pressure. escape
gases
or
.
^Zeit.
Ver.
ZuckeriDd.,
64, 543.
100
PURGING
is directed
AND
CURING
into the second
SUGAR.
THE
is returned
gutter and
to the pan-
is not reboilingwith rich sirup. This arrangement of the account of the lagging behind satisfactory on very off, which in part mixes with heavy molasses first thrown The 'classificaticm is better wash. the accomplished by for
room
purging as described farther on. Each sugar-drieror purger usually manipulates two centrifugals. to place a man at each It is necessary large machine these to their full capacity in drying very free purgto work ing 24-inch A 40-inch driven centrifugal, by by sugars. belts and working with one operative to two machines, should double
from
purge
4000
4800
to
lbs. of 96" with
the
polarization sugar
the
per
skill of the
quantity varying hour, operative, massecuite and the with the which the quality of the facility centrifugalmay be started and stopped. This capacity may of mechanical be increased by the use dischargers,or selfdischargingbaskets. that is lowered into The discharger is a plow arrangement the
basket
directed
and
basket
wall
against the
of
slowlyagainstthe plow, which
is revolved
The
sugar.
down
cuts
the
valve. by the bottom pushes it out of the machine basket has a steep conical section at The S3lf-discharging have not and the bottom a or discharge-valve. may may The the discharge-valve has a deflector on type without and
sugar
spinele the
or
shaft
basket.
direct the massecuite
to
the
In
other
type,
the
toward
valve
the
wall of
be
raised
may
sugar
with a deflector centrifugalis running. The machine while running. When is charged with massecuite the has been purged and the centrifugalis stopped the
sugar
usually falls
while
the
it without
to lift the it is necessary machines is stopped. These
other
with
of
out
form
freelypurging
sugar
of strong
of white
manufacture
assistance. valve
before
should
be
In the
used
the trifugal cen-
only
grain.
sugar
demands
wash
water
in special care in the centrifugalwith large purging. The sugar is washed quantities of water, upward of six gallons being required A small quantity of ultramarine per charge in a 40-inch machine. The
is often
tinge
of the
added
sugar.
the best results in
to
The
the
method
of
to kill the
double
washing plantation white
yellow purging gives
sugars
CENTRIFUGAL
sets of
Two The
is
sugar
are centrifugals
device
and
for double
necessary
purged in the first set without
little water.
very
101
WORK.
It is then
formed
into
a
**
down
cut
with
magma
"
smip
purging.
washing or with into a mingling the second
from
is elevated to the second mixer and purging. The magma b purged in the second set of centrifugalswith thorough washing. Double two-fold It separates purging serves a purpose: the the dark, low-purity molasses of the first purging from This sirup is of the rich, light-coloredsirup of the second. suitable color and richness to permit reboiling with canemixes the The mingling process sirup to make white sugar. crystalsthoroughly with the light-colored sirup. The friction of
of the
removal
the
crystal against crystal promotes
hering ad-
film of molasses. introduced into Cuba purging was by the writer in the pro* facilitate the handling of crystallizer-sugar
Double to
The grade of sugar and final molasses. is purged without washing and the molasses crystallizer-sugar is discharged into a mingling it is final. The from sugar The and transferred to the mingler proper. screw-conveyor duction
of
one
is lubricated
conveyor-screw
78**
about to
purging
in
or
"seed" Raw
this molasses
to
in
a
is also used
simply
in the a
mixer used
to be storage crystallizer
are
without
dried
mingler The
mixer.
for immediate as
footing
a
usually packed in bags for shipment, and further drying than they receive in the
centrifugals.Their moisture may be reduced by superheated steam in the centrifugal. Raw sugars granulators or driers such refineries (see page 120) provided they be
to
boilingmassecuites.
sugars
Cuba,
diluted
first molasses
the magma. The mingler is is pumped to the first machine's
form
magma
or
Brix, and
with
in
as are
high
use
of also
may
used
are
of
the
in test
the and
of drying is very liable to result crystal. This method cake in the packages. in a product that will harden or The usual Cuban bag holds from 325 to 330 lbs. of sugar 29 inches by 48 inches and centrifugalsugar and measures clean
its tare White
with
is
approximately 2.5 lbs.
sugars
may
superheated
be steam
dried in
in the the
granulator
or
centrifugal.The
dryer or crystal^
102
PXJRGING
lose
SUGAR.
THE
part of their glossin the granuiatorthrough friction
a
with
CXJKING
AND
another.
one
The
American
is accustomed
market
to
possibly prefers it. The gloss is preserved in drying with superheated steam and it is such sugars that such
made
are
and
sugar
The
in Java
for the
should
be heated
steam
home to
and
East
about
200"
Indies C; in
markets.
separate
a
boiler. Various
types of
used
are
conveyors
in
transfixing
sugar
centrifugalsto the packing4"ins. Sugar should not fail directlyfrom the centrifugal into the package, since under this condition it cannot be of uniform quality,and besides harden. Three in general use: are types of conveyors may the
from
(1) Ribbonribbon it.
that
The
revolves
cross-section
(2) Endless attached the
in
to
belt.
chain.
a
is
objectionable feature This
conveyor.
of is
used
very
very
quickly,leaving the
a
leakage of
parabola.
a
hopper (3) Grass-
sugar.
that
is
design. As is is something of the conveyor implied by the name, the motion like that of a grasshopper. A trough is arranged to move slowly forward, carrying the sugar, and then pull backward
sugar
generally in factories
slats
device,but has
efficient conveyor
very
with
sugar
curved-steel
of
efficient
very
a
be
spiral
or
screw
carries the
is often
belt
This
a
trough should
the
of
The
and
trou^
a
is
This
screw-conveyor.
or
Each
sugar.
stroke
advances
All parts of the conveyor
certain distance.
a
Scotch
of
are
the
easily
accessible for.cleaning. be cooled to atmospheric temperature Sugars should before packing them, oth^^isc they usually cake in the package. 43" Classification of Raw ^The basis of the Sugars. American is usually a centrifugalsugar polarizing96*^. market "
This
* *
sugar
based
molasses
is of
test and
sugar
in Java
''
and
be
sugar
95" or
and
tedt
of
96".
seconds.
Muscovado
market
the
instead
crystallizedat rest, but included.
higher
in the American
conditions
market may
vacuum-pan.
be
muscovado,
certain
grained in the
must
This now
sugar
upon
The
' *
The
is there called
Javas.
which next
responding cor-
''
Under
the
price is grade is 89""
formerly always a sugar low-testing grain-sugars are is that made by open-air evaporation was
in coolers crystallization
at
rest.
The
molaases
SUGARS
LOW-GRADE
INTO
by simple drainage. The
b removed
103
GRADES.
HIGH
bulk
of the
sugar
raw
product of the Tropics is of the 96** grade. States Raw entering the United were sugars classified according to the Dutch color standard.
formerly Certain
The countries, notably Japan, still retain this standard. Dutch Standard is a series of sugars ranging in color from a
brown, numbered
dark
very
numbered
These
25.
They
Holland.
bottles
square
of the
given
No. of
Classification
44.
Plantation order
122.
White
grade above
n:ust 45.
market No.
Conversion
Grades.
The
"
White
Tropical 96**
size.
Sugars."
The
cation classifi-
of
method
in
sugars
Indies
Standard.
Low-grade of
white
Java
of the East specifications
25 Dutch
remelting the low
without
in small
trade
sugar
16 of this standard.
Granulated.
or
the
meet
to
sugar, annually in
refineries is produced by the American The plantation product is usually called
sugars
page
on
the
glass and
uniform
of the
white
pure
prepared
are
supplied to
are
almost
an
samples
usually fallsbelow
sugar
7, to
into
Sugars
making
single grade of
a
is described
sugars
High sugar
elsewhere
in
chapter. Low-testing grain-sugarsand string-sugarare ing frequentlyremelted and reboiled to higher grades. Remeltwith is unnecessary be grain-sugars,since they may and be repurged to sugar of high mingled with molasses this
be
polarization. String-sugar must be
or
remelted
in
juice or
part of the
water
used
for
to
"
seed
"
a
pan
reboiling. Remelting
being reboiled several times The remelting with the accompanying decomposition losses. introduce bacterial organisms into the of string-sugarmay
results
in
a
products that 46.
cause
may
sugar
serious deterioration of
Deterioration
Sugars.
in storage. of
Warehousing
of losses
through
with avoidance storage of raw sugar fall in its polarizationhas been a subject
of much
study.^
Jhe
Sugar.
Raw
"
^The
size and
cleanliness of the factory and the
moisture
and
See R.
also
"
The
S. Norris, Bui.
of
character
Sugars
24, Ezpt. Sta. Haw.
crystals,the
packing conditions, the composition of the
of the sugar or the crystaland the
Deterioration
of the
the
process,
content
residual sirup on
1
hardness
on
of the
Storage,"
Piantera'
Ass'n.
ware-
No6l
Deerr !
104
PURGING
house
CURING
AND
THE
SUGAR.
all influence the keeping qualities.It itself,
is also
without possiblethat washing the sugars in the centrifugals, following this with thorough drying in the machines, has an adverse film
effect in storage
of molasses
dilution
of the
account
on
observed that crystal..Claassen the film of molasses when surrounding the crystalsis supersaturated the microorganisms cannot and that the develop has good keeping qualities. Deterioration is generally sugs^ beUeved by investigatorsto be usually due to bacteria and on
the
of the
^
yeasts. for composed of large crystalspresents less area moisture absorption than one made up of small crystals. A hard crystalwill have Uttle molasses adhering to it or penetrating diluted with it. Molasses is hygroscopic and when affords an excellent medium for the activityof bacteria water A
and
sugar
thus be seen that the combination It may of a hard crystalis favorable to good storage qualities.
yeasts.
large and
Cleanliness
of the
eliminate factory and utensils cannot reduce their activity. Further, there are bacteria,but can fewer bacteria and yeasts in a'clean than in an untidy factory. CleanUness is very essential. in the centrifugalwork The wash-water should be pure and the utensils for handling it should be kept in good sanitary condition. have influence upon the an packing conditions may keeping quaUties. If a sugar is packed while too hot, it will condition necessary in the package and the moisture sweat to bacterial activityis thus supplied. The writer has noted a fall of several degrees in the polarizationof standard lated granuwhile that hbt. quite was undoubtedly packed sugar in very It is not usually a simple matter large raw-sugar factories to provide coohng arrangements. The
That
the moisture
influence
the
upon
in
dry
very
sugar
long storage.
conditions. well
keeping
observers.
of many that
content
The
It
will must
of the sugar has a very qualitiesis the consensus
It is
usually hold also
Sugar
be
permissibleupper
but it has been established,
^Beet
quite
now
Manufacture
and
very
a
its
stored
marked of
well-known
ion opinfact
polarization' even under
sanitary
limit of moisture
generallyobserved
Refining, L. S. Ware,
II, 343.
is not that
WAREHOUSING
polarizing
sugars
of
cent
per
damp
less
through
Australia, may
Per In in
the
be
less
should
offset
has
by
of the
be
with
believes
tightly
provided
its
the
that when
it
per
little
in
gain
ization polar-
is
than
in
of
of
that
the
sealed
warehouse of
reduced
non-polarization
Such thus
rise
the
warehouse
sugar
is
should
a
as
whether
to
undoubtedly
deposition
or
it should for
open
be
close
the
on
The the
free
closed
of moisture
temperature. to
difficult
large and
be
should
plan
be
may
of test.
storage
safer
a
Decomposition
test.
during
night
this
that
loss
giving
warehouse
the
that
indication
sucrose.
opinion
of
deterioration
sugars.
an
suitable
a
sugar
"0.333.
indicates
Cuban
original
small
a
the
for
always
the
cause
account
its
to
moisture,
of
pany, Coma
=
suffer
not
may
not
whether
polarization)
moisture
loss
a
judging
Sugar
polarization:
smaller
one
is
1
exposure
Colonial
Experience
somewhat
on
writer
warehouse
practicable. 6
cubic
325-lb.
bag
Approximately
Bpace.
0.333.
The
days
damp
si^ar
than
hermetically
almost
ventilation. on
of
is difference
There
than
very
without even
the
in
sugar
ratio
It is certain
make.
dry.
a
specification
full
place,
(100"
-4-
sugar
that
might
levulose
The
in
higher
polarization
less
suffer
may
of
its
conserve
greater
a
containing
sugars
value
great
suffered
not
dry
a
formula
polarization
of
Gain sugar
be
and
moisture.
the
to
words,
other
storage,
ratio
to
of
moisture
cent
should
of
is of
expected
in
105
SUGAR.
warehoused
air, such
loss
application
be
when
of
RAW
97^
stored
If
currents
The
than
moisture
deterioration. to
OF
feet of
warehouse
sugar
and
capacity 6.5
square
should feet
of
be floor-
'
^
47.
"
REFINING
SUGAR
The
Introductory. "
simple
refiningis
of
process in actual
practice. The working theory,but very complex up of the lower-grade materials,the handling of the sweetmous waters and the control of the char filtration involve an enor-
in
of which
much detail, in this chapter. of
amount
The
and
raw
"margin"
narrow
refined
tended
to
sidered fully con-
the
difference between
or
has
sugars
be
cannot
the
cause
prices of
concentrar
of
shipping industryinto largeunits. The matter of fancy grades of refined the increasingnumber sugar have also helped in bringing about this concentration. Practicallyall of the refined sugar used in the United States is now cipal produced in a few largerefineries situated in the printion of the
faciHties and
seaports. 48.
Definitions.
producing only modifications
Refineries
"
the
and
white
pure
which
those
the soft white
are
of two
classes:
granulated
manufacture
sugar
both
Those and
its
granulated
of lower
purity. chapter as ''hardsugar" and "soft-sugar"refineries respectively. It must be in mind, however, that the soft-sugarrefinery also borne The two types of refineries use produces hard sugars. however, the same essentially process, the soft-sugarrefineries, employing all expedients which will give fine color to their lower-grade liquors. The term "liquor" is used in refiningto refer lo a sugar solution from which no sugar has been removed by crystallization. solution which from has "Sirup" refers to a sugar been is A "sweet-water" a already crystallized. wash-water and
sugar
and
These
refineries will be referred to in this
1
By
Cuba. as
George The
P.
Meade,
methods
it is conducted
Superintendent
described
in the
yellow sugars
American
here
of
the
Cardenas
apply especially
to
Refinery,
sugar
refineries.
106
refining
*
l08
SUQAR
The
Jute-bags
packages. received
are
American
arrive at the
sugars
raw
RBFININa.
the
from
refineryin various
containing
300
Indies.
West
lbs.
330
to*
Hawaiian
kinds
and
of each
Central
packed in smaller jute-bags. Java are packed in palm-leaf ba^ets. Occasionally barrels sugars and used and for musoovadoes concretehogsheads are Each is weighed and package of sugar sampled sugars. before it is dumped. The
are
sugars
into bucket-elevators and is dumped carried to the minglers. Some of the larger refineries have These recently installed storage-bins for raw are sugars. the minglers. The packages of sugar are hoisted p laced above directlyfrom the ship and after weighing and sampling are raw
is
sugar
emptied into the bins. Sufficient sugar is dumped durirg the day to supply the refinery for the twenty-four hours period. The sugar is fed continuously by SCToll-oonveyors the bins to the minglers. This method from of storage materially reduces the cost of handling the raw sugars. with hot water The for the jute-bags are washed empty of the adhering sugar, dried and sold. The wash or recovery is mixed
"sweet-water"
evaporated
to
with
sirup and
a
other thus
palm-baskets are steamed boilers in specially constructed The
barrels
are
steamed
and the
Washing
50.
solutions
the
enters
and
then
and
is
manufacture.
burned
furnaces.
under
the
Hogsheads
and
sold. Raw
The Crystals. enters sugar simply strong scroll-conveyors pro"
minglers, which are with mixing-flights, where vMed
the
similar
it is
intimately mixed
with
"mash." sirup of 65-70" Brix to form a cold magma or is immediately purged in centa'ifugal This magma machines a
of the
type used is washed
in raw-sugar
manufacture.
The
in the
resulting
centrifugalsby graying a The measured quantity of water. purging and washing free and yield a the crystalsof the coating of adhering molasses light-cbloredsugar of from 98.5 to 99 coefficient of purity. sugar
This a
process
sugar
kinds
separates the
it with
raw
material
into two
parts,
one
high purity and the other a sirup of comparatively low purity. This separation facilitates the manufacture and of permits the simultaneous refining Several of very
of
raw
sugar,
e.gr., cane-
and
beet-sugar.
10^
DEFECATION.
''washed
The
weight of
sugar" is dissolved in about in
one-half its
mixing-arms and called a "melter.'' In certain refineries, of the higher some used in melting, but the better grades of sweetr-waters are The melted practice is to use clean hot water. sugar-liquor is pumped to the defecators. water
tank
a
provided with
The
''raw-sugar washings/' purged from the mash, have coefficient of purity of approximately 80" and constitute
a
melted. The weight of raws amount of raw-sugar washings will be greater as the test of the melt is lower, and for sugars having a small or soft grain. A part of the undiluted washings is used to make the with mash and is diluted the remainder succeeding raws
from
14
with
water
or
order
In
hand
18
to
per
dark
cent
and
sweet-waters
reduce
to
of the
sugar
is sent
to the defecators.
through material
losses
being
on
long, it is usual to start the mash with fresh water in twenty-four hours, all the washings on hand at that once time being pumped to the defecators. too
When
small, soft-grainedlow-grade
very
muscovadoes
and
sugars,
such
as
to handled, it is customary them melt directly without resulting lowwashing. The the as grade Uquor is defecated and treated exactly the same washings.
concretes,
Defecation.
are
The
defecators
into
the
''blow-ups'* consist of iron tanks, usually of 3000 gallons capacity, fitted with perforated coils through which exhaust or low-pressure 51.
steam
be
may
blow-up
is
"
blown
or
liquor. The
usuallysUghtly conical
to
of the
bottom
facilitate
drainage and
cleaning. A
great number
of defecants
have
been
experimented with
Blood blood albumen was or formerly refinery work. but its use has been entirely used as a coagulant and clarifier, The defecatingmaterials commonly discontinued. employed for
phosphoric acid. The phosphoric acid be in the form of monocalcic phosphate, phosphoric-acid may paste or a clear phosphoric acid. The monocalcic in the refinery by the phosphate is made bone-dust. action of commercial hydrochloric acid upon
are
milk
of lime
and
This
is called "black
sent
of available
paste," and contains
from
phosphoric acid (PsO^)*
The
10
to
black
12 per
paste
110
REFINING.
SUGAR
chlorides and
co"taind hence acid
increase
these
absorbed
not
are
by the char,
quantity of residual sirup. Phosphoric be made in the refineryby treating bonesulphuric acid. Pastes of this type may be
the
paste may
black
dust with
found
in the market
various
commercial
They
names.
sulphates which will be phate increasing the sullargelyretained by the char in the filters, of the char. The clear phosphoric acid is content made dust with sulphuric acid and by treating bone-black the solids in wooden-frame then filtering out filter-presses. The soluble sulphates are reduced to a minimum by diluting the phosphoric-acid solution to 15** Brix. The clear phosphoric troublesome than the to make acid,while a Uttle more to
apt
are
other
have
under
of
content
preparations named, is the
two
the three and The
high
a
lime
introduces
less soluble salts into the
is introduced
phosphoric acid
as
milk
a
is first added
of about
and
the
a
reaction
faint
acid
formation
to litmus.
reaction
of dark-colored
lime-salts.
Brix.
20"
The
immediately give a faintly
to
If soft sugars be maintained
may
liquors.
lime
afterward, usually in sufficient quantity alkaline
satisfactoryof
most
to be
are
to
made,
prevent
th^
phosphoric acid used is determined by the class of sugar melted, defecating material. low-grade liquors requiring in general more A about
use
available of
refineryhandling
raw
1000
phosphoric acid melted.
sugar
is turned
of 95"
sugars
lbs. of lime
and
(P2O6)
The
from for
average
test
to
600
million
each of
coils and
into the
of
500
the addition
After
amount
the
will
lbs. of
pounds
defecants,
the
blow-up temperature of the time liquor is brought to 180" F.* At the same is added to the liquor. The water washed-sugar liquor is diluted to 54" Brix and the raw washings to 60" Brix, the
steam
densities
being hydrometer.
as
determined
in
the
hot
liquor with
a
organic acids present in the raw and the excess combines with the phosphoric acid sugar tricalcic phosphate. form The to heating and defecants the precipitation of the greater part of the gums, cause neutralizes
The
lime
^ The
Fahrenheit
Used
throughoat
scale
the
is used
in all American
this chapter.
refineries
and
is therefore
albumins
and
pectins. The entrains
precipitatewhich derived defecated
The
liquor
distributed
washed
the
over
whole with
raw
forms
it the
finelysuspended
terials ma-
and
low-grade sugar or they may separate bag-filters
to
filters which
the
heavy, flocculent
a
jute, etc. bagasse-fiber,
sugar,
washings
or
either be sent
liquorsmay be
from
Ill
FILTRATION.
BAG
allowing sugar-liquors,
have
been
used
for
draining period after the
a
high-grade liquorhas been shut off. Filtration. ^The American 5!3. Bag refineries use the Taylor type of filter. This filterconsists of a cast-iron casing box, the top of which is perforated at intervals with holes, or "
each
nipple fitted into it from which is suspended Each element. bag is made up of an a filter-bag or sheath of looselywoven cord, about 6J feet long and
having
outside
diameter, and
in
6 inches
short
a
is 6 feet
which
inside
an
long and 24 inches
bag of cotton-twill fabric
being loosely crumpled in the sheath fluted filter of the laboratories. be screwed
A
The
across.
inside
bag
gives the effect of the
bronze
connection, which
nipples in the holes in the top of the is tied into the mouth of each bag. filter, The defecated Uquor is run which to the top of the filter, on is surrounded by a shallow* curbing, and flows down through the bags, the precipitatebeing retained. The filtered washedmay
Uquor is of a Ught-brown color,quite free of suspended filtered raw-washings are also clear or turbidity. The
sugar matter
darker
of much
but
to the
hours'
the
use
slow.
color.
bags fillwith
liquorgoing on
The
After mud
from
and
fifteen
to
twenty
filtration becomes
to the filter is
very
shut off and
now
the
liquor remaining in the bags is sucked out by a vacuum-pipe, The filter-bags is allowed flushed once to drain out. or are or
twice
with
presses and hang in the each
thin
the mud
alkaline
from
sweet-water
washed
is further
in the
the
bags,
as
they
jetof hot water
into
filter-casing, by introducinga successively.This "sticking" is repeated from
five times
washed
in
after which a
the
bags
series of tubs
are
to
taken remove
filter-
out
three to
of the filter and
all the
mud.
The
sent to the evaporator for conare bag-filtersweet-waters centration. The and water from mud-water, i.e.,the mud the tubs, is limed, diluted and filter-pressed.The press-
cake
is discarded
or
sold for agriculturaluse,
and
the presa-
^
112
REFINING.
SUGAR
partly in flushingfiltersas mentioned is evaporated to a sirup. above, and the remainder is used water, filtrate,
Filtration.
Char
53.
^The char
"
bone-black
or
filters are
and importance in refining. The economy of the refiningprocess depend upon careful control efficiency the
of
utmost
to detail at
close attention
and
this station.
The
filtration
according to a definite schedule,each step in the The entire of thne. operation being allotted a given amount filtration to the beginning operation, from the beginning of one is carried
on
of the next, is termed
the
"cycle" of the filter. The ing seventy-two hours, depend-
cycle will take from forty-eightto the speed at which the rebumed upon
is drawn
char
from
the kilns. Two
systems
of
"battery" and
or
working char-filters prevail: The the
"continuous"
system, all the filters filled in
one
the
In
systems.
"set"
as day are w6rked class doing the same
unit, all the filters in the group In the continuous time. at the same
a
group
of work
each
system,
set-
filter
through its cycle independently, a step ahead of the filter filled inunediately after it. The set-system is used by it lends itself more easily to soft-sugar refineries because the use of doubletheir pan-boiling system and also simplifies continuous The and requires a system triple-filtration. goes
given melt, so it is generally used in the hard-sugar refineries. The handling the same. filter in the two systems is essentially of any one conical The filters are cast-iron vertical cylindrical cisterns, much
char-filter installation
smaller
for
a
bottom, and usually about 10 feet in diameter door feet deep. The top is closed by a movable
the top and
at
and
20
termed
the
the
bottom
The
char
weave
filter-head. for the
serve
rests
cotton
Two
on
a
manholes
removal
of the
perforatedplate
blanket, and
at
the
exhaust^
covered
this in turn
sides
with
with
a
near
black. a
coarse-
blanket
of
finer weave, to prevent the char-dust being carried out with the filtered liquor. The inlet-pipeis at the side of the close to the top, and the outlet ^ at the bottom, below filter, the perforated plate. The outlet-pipeis carried up in a
gooseneck
on
the outside
of the filter to within
a
few
feet of
the top. The
material filtering
is animal
charcoal
or
bone-black.
113
FILTRATION.
CHAR
.
is the
This
granular residue obtained
distillation of bones.
by the destructive
"char." usually called "black" or color from the sugar Primarily, it removes solutions,but, as will be shown and later,organic inorganic impurities are removed
well.
as
melted
It is
The
ratio
of bone-black
used
to
sugar
varies
but the best widely for different refineries, burned for practice requires at least 1 lb. of bone-black melted. pound of raw-sugar The following are the various steps in the cycle of operations^ considering any one filter: Fillingthe filter with char; tion covering the char with liquor; running the liquoror the filtraeach
washing the Uquor
proper;
and
water;
the
arrangement The
retorts.
Char.
speed with which
The
kilns.
char
with
hot
the revivification of the char.
Filling the Filter mth upon
of the
out
draw
of char
^The time of
"
the char
is dependent filling be drawn
may
is controlled
by
from of
means
operating small doors at the bottom is that at which fastest possible draw
burning of the char
a
of
the cam
the
proper
The tion distribujust be maintained. of the bone-black in the filter is of primary importance. If the dust and largergrains of char are not uted evenly distribthe liquor will flow through the throughout the filter, culties difficoarser particles,forming channels and causing many distribution during the washing-off period. Even be obtained
may
in many
designed
devices delivered
can
to
into the filter by
stem, the funnel
have
a
there
of
means
being turned
several
are
this result.
secure
bent
and
ways
The
funnel
a
patented
char with
may a
be
slightly
intervals
by hand or An effective method in of filling continuously by a motor. the char is to deliver it into the filter promiscuously and man
the
received
the
enter
material
sufficient
at
cistern from
with
a
shovel.
char, this is drawn
time
to
After up
into
time the a
cone
and
tribute dis-
filter has in the
middle. **
Covering^* the Bone-black
Liquor. Air-pockets in be avoided. the char must To prevent these, the liquor is deliveried slowly at the base of the cone of char, with the head down of the filter off. The Uquor runs the sides of the filter until it reaches the blanket, then flows across the whole width
of the
filter at
the
with
bottom
"
and
rises,forcing the air
114
REFINING.
SUGAR
out
through the
the
covering.
When
the
liquor begins is closed
goose-neck tiie outlet-valve until
filter is filled.
the
is kept dry throughout
char, which
of
cone
The
to
and
head
is
flow
liquor is put
now
the
from
in
run
the
on
it under into liquor is turned pressure (15-25 feet head). The covering usually requiresabout four
filter and
the
hours. heat
Considerable to well-burned
on
is
hot
generated when With
char.
the char
liquor is first run
at
of
temperature
a
liquor at 165", the outflow during the first few hours of running will normally have a temperature tions, these condiIf covering is stopped under of 185" to 190". if filtration is suspended during the early stages, or rise to such a point that the the temperature in the filter may 140"
to
the
and
160"
liquor will be scorched.
The
should
char
be
cooled
to
at
and every precaution filters, should be observed to avoid interruptionsto the flow of liquor during the covering period and until the temperature of the outflowing liquor is practicallythat of the liquorentering it enters
before
150"
most
the
the filter. The
FiUration,
filters (99" four
washed-sugar liquor from
The
"
purity) is run
hours
or
longer
on
at
a
the filter at
160"
of about
150
rate
the
bag-
F. for twentycubic
feet per
sirups from granby dark-colored ulated this in turn strikes (90" purity) and by low-grade sugar-liquors,bag-filtered raw-sugar washings, sirup from other low-grade material which remelt strikes or any it is successive advantageous to filter. Each grade is of lower purity and in general the speed of flow is reduced and the hoiur.
is followed
This
raised
temperature
with
each
reduction
grade of liquor follows the preceding
one
of
purity.
without
a
Each
break
in
the filtration. In
where soft-sugar refineries,
the
low-purity liquors of
essential,all the liquorswhich are not used to produce granulated sugar are double or triplefiltered. The lower-grade liquorsfrom one set of char-filters will follow the washed-sugar liquor on a succeeding set and the darker runnings from this set will in turn be carried on the third set. fine color
The not
are
third
re-filtration
removes
materiallyraise the
purity of the
liquors.
second
and
color, but
does
116
SUGAR
in
and
general consist essentiallyof
the waste
the wet
char enters and
The
the kilns
from
gases
conduct The
the surface
about
with
kilns consists of
passes.
cross-section
3 inches
a
3 per
ting-plates this casing. of moisture
cent
cent.
flanked
ends and
pipe-retortsthrough which
of
The
of
20 per
fired at both
furnace
triplerows
12 feet
to
Deflec
slowly over the driers carrying about
leaves them
10
casing through which
a
drawn.
are
char
by double or char slow'y and
REFINING.
retorts
of cast
are
by 9 inches long. The retorts
or
3 are
iron, of oval
inches
by
heated
to
during the revivification. The rebuming of the black decomposes oxides"and carbonizes the organic matter
the
12 a
inches
dull red
heat
to
failed
to
This
remove.
carbon
carbonates
some
which
remains
in
the washing the
pores
such as is black, and since it has no decolorizingpower possessed by the constituent carbon, it merely clogs the of the char and decreases its filteringvalue proporpores tionately. The Weinrich decarbonizer, designed to remove this added carbon, is a revolving drum, slightlyinclined to the horizontal,with a carefullyregulated fire under it. The the char passes as vegetable carbon is burned away through the drum, thus increasing the porosity and prolonging the
of the
life of the bone-black. The
char
is
dropped from the retorts of the kilri, through coohng-pipes, upon belt-conveyors,and is carried by these and
elevators
cooled
on
through
to
the finer
remove
The
particlesand
bone-black
the dust
is
before
it
again filled into the filter. char
New
loss in
the
in
is shown
is added
dust
The
defecation The
is used or
in the
given:
in
course
making
same
to
time
to
compensate
for
gradually deteriorates,as A refineryusually renews of every
two
phosphoric acid
three years. for use in the or
is sold for fertilizer manufacture.
Composition of Bone-black
Analyses of the
time
from
screening. The char the next paragraph.
all of its bone-black
of
If necessary the char is further filters by passing it over pipes
its way the to cold water is circulated. which
screened is
to the filters.
new
bone-black
black
after
and
Its Alteration
of American several
months
by Use,
manufacture of
use,
are
"
and here
CHAR
117
FILTRATION.
After months'
Black.
New
Carbon
9.61
Insoluble
silica .
.
.
.
sulphate. sulphide.
Calcium
use.
10.80
.59
.67
.16
.55
.06
.24
.
Calcium
six
.
carbonate
Calcium
4.48
8.92
.23
.06
Iron
Undetermined.
80.70 .
83.13
.
.
100
Weight
per
Weight
per
cubic
foot,loose cubic foot,packed.
43.8
lbs.
54.5
....
between
Percentage mesh
100
16
and
48.5 .
lbs-
59.1
.
30
sieves
84.8
always contains some nitrogen, which is apparently The essential to its decolorizing properties. r61e
Bone-black
this
plays in the filtration has contains
black
be
must
efifect upon char
new
a
considerable
removed,
since
not
of ammonia
amount
they would
the color of the filtered be
must
determined.
been
throughly washed
have
salts,which a
detrimental
liquors. For this and
New
burned
reason,
before
use
for filtration. As
is shown
by the analyses,the composition of char alters
of the steadily because fication. deposition of vegetable carbon in the pores during the reviviThe calcium sulphate increases by the removal of The sulphide sulphates from the liquors and the water. with
use.
The
carbon
increases
tion sulphates increase,due to the reducof the latter by the organic matter during the burning. calcium carbonate The drops sharply during the first few washings and burnings and finallytends to reach a balance
tends
around
to increase
5 per
as
cent.
the
The
iron increases
slowly. Of all these iron are the most tionable. objec-
impurities the calcium sulphide and Appreciable quantities of these two constituents will give a greenish color to the filtered liquorsand a gray cast to
the sugars
boiled from
them.
A
bone-black
may
become
118
REFINING.
SUGAR
unfit for
if the calcium
use
addition
constant
0.4 per
burning, together with the black, will prevent the sulphide
new
becoming abnormal.
from
content
of
sulphidecontent exceeds and
washing
Thorough
cent.
"
Bone-black not Sugar Solviions. but also absorbs color from the sugar solutions, only removes organic and inorganic impurities. The black is selective in its action, certain classes of material being retained by it Solutions containing color due more strongly than others. Gums not easily decolorized. to overheating (caramel) are Action
of Bone-black
on
"
strongly held by the char and no amount them. of washing will completely remove Of the salts,the carbonates, sulphates and phosphates are readily absorbed, and
albumen
are
the chlorides and
while
Invert-sugar
extent.
than
greater extent with
the
hot
nitrates or
absorbed
not
are
to any
"glucose'' is absorbed
sucrose,
but
is
to
largely washed
a
out
great much
again
Consequently the glucose ratio of the filtered liquors is lower than that of the unfiltered,while the ratio of the diluted runnings and sweet-waters is very much combined onflow higher. The compared with the combined filtrate shows This practicallya glucose balance. water.
'
acid-liquorsor inversion In from
actual 80 to 85
the mineral
and
well-burned
burned insufficiently occur
may
control
correct
a
presupposes
With
char, heavy losses by
in the filters.
refinery practice, the bone-black 30 to per cent of the color,from
matter
char.
or
"ash," and
from
50
to
will 40 60
absorb
per
cent
of
per
cent
of
the
of the combined organic non-sugars onflowing liquors. 54. Crystallization of the Sugar. Classification of the Ldquors. The liquors are classified at the filter outlet-pipes according to their purity and color and are distributed to "
"
storage-tanks
near
the
vacuum-pans.
In
the
continuous
in which filters are at the same two no filtration, phase of their cycles,all grades of Uquors are flowing at the time. The classified about follows: as same liquors are First liquor: Filtered washed-sugar liquor, "water white" and of 99" to 99.5" purity; second liquor:Filtered granulatedsirups,off-white or slightlyyellow and of 90 to 93" purity; third liquor: Filtered or double-filtered washings or lowgrade meltings,golden yellow and of 84" to 87" purity;fourth
system
of
OF
CRYSTALLIZATION
liquor: Last runnings,too dark and of 75 to 80" purity. the "set"
Where filters of
a
set
and
are
THE
to make
119
SUGAR.
granulated
sugar
of filtration is in use, all the kind of liquorat the deliveringthe same
system
there is not
the
fication. necessityfor a rigidclassiThe distribution on the pan-flooris made to suit the needs of the boiling-system. The vacuum-pans used in refiningdo Boiling to Grain. not differ from those of the raw-sugar factory. The general in the two branches of the manipulationsis the same principle 1 but from the nature of the product, greater of the industry, be exercised in the refinery. This is due to the must care necessityof boilingsugars to certain specifications as regards hardness and of the The size the crystals. factory raw-sugar uniform aims make of size to and hardness a only usually sugars of grain. In boilinggranulated and other hard sugars, a high pan-temperature is maintained (180"), while for which small soft sugars, in a grain is desired,low spongy temperatures (120"-130") prevail. hard sugars only are to be made, a fixed system of When boilingmay be adhered to. The first hquor is boiled for the fancy grades, cubes, cut loaf, confectioners' sugars, etc. The sirupspurged from these strikes are boiled back with more liquorto make the ordinary granulated. The boilinguntil the sirups,usually of about is continued back 90" color that they are no longer suitof such able purity, are returned to the for reboiling. These sirups are now refiltered. The and are second liquor and the bone-black boiled to make third liquor are "oflf-granulated"sugar. This is a slightly"off-color" sugar which is disposed of by graduallyand slowlymixing it with the better grade of granulated time
same
"
strikes. strikes are boiled with sirupsfrom the off-granulated fourth liquorfor "high remelt" strikes of 75" to 80" purity. to a high test (98" of these strikes are washed The sugars purity)and are melted directlywith the washed raw sugar. The sirups from these strikes are boiled back on a footing strikes of about 67" purity. These of fourth liquorto make The
1
See
page
90, relative to sugar-boiling in the raw-sugar
factory.
I.J
120
REFINING.
SUGAR
where they are kept discharged into crystallizers in motion during two to three days. They are then purged and yield a sugar of from 85** without the use of wash-water be mixed with high-testraws to 90" purity. This may sugar are
magmas
and
with
be them, or, preferably it may and be submitted directlywith other low-grade raws already described. processes The sirups purged from these low-grade remelt
washed
the residual
melted to the
strikes
syrup" of the refiners. The procedure in a soft-sugar refineryin boiling the high the same that already as Hquors to granulated sugar is much described. The soft sugars are graded according to color, varyingfrom an almost pure white to a deep brown sugar. The lower grades of liquorsfrom a set of char-filters are boiled form
"barrel
sirup or
purity, which planned to yield sugars of the desired colors. The sirups are either boiled back directlyor are from soft-sugar strikes are the needs require. The varying demand first char-filtered, as for the different grades necessarilyprecludes the possibility to boil of a fixed boiling-system. It is frequently necessary for "remelt," as in the hard-sugar houses. At times sugars be so large that but a very the output of soft sugars may barrelsmall percentage of the impurities is turned out as
into
series of strikes of
a
successively lower
sirup. 55.
and
Drying
of the
Finishing
The to
white
sugars
remove
"
The
tion separa-
such
factories
very
thoroughly washed
in the machine
is effected
from
adhering
by
{42)
are sirup. The moist sugars the centrifugalsto distributing-bins above
all
veyed
are
Product.
sirup in the magmas used in the as are
the
crystalsfrom
centrifugalmachines
the
.
con*
the
granulators. The for one
bulk
of the white
drying. The another, hence The
diameter
its
granulator is and
is sent
through the granulators granulator also separates the crystalsfrom an
sugar
name.
iron drum
(Fig. 17) about
6
feet in
long, slightlyinclined to the horizontal toward the A discharge end, and revolving on trunnions. shelves attached series of narrow to the inside of the drum, to lift the sugar and let it fall through longitudinally,serves heated air as the drum The air is heated either by revolves. 20
feet
DRYING
of
means
steam-drum
a
granulator end
of
FINISHING
AND
by
or
the
drum.
The
the
granulator by
removes
the
sugar-dust.
the other.
lower
with
The
central
a
partly dried
upper-drum
is required
steam
The
and
complete
t"
should
sugar
drum.
steam
leave
preferably below
110".
special provision
for
quite the
the
cooling the
hot it is very
falls from
the
according
to
the
bins.
The
screened
containere
other
deliver
"shakers"
sugar the
as
the
during
small
machines
packages. The
in cartons. or
mixing
very
little section.
comparatively
packages.
cool, make
to
necessary
in the of
paciied
n.arkct
various sugar
is packed
The
which
screens
into
in barrels,
lumps
the
and
packingand
bags
Barrels
refineries
sugar
classify it
the
remove
requires.
such
rest
upon
equipped
are
permit the packing
used
Cubes
and
the
in filling,weighing cut
loaf-sugars
practice of wrapping
in moisture-proof
introduced
kinds oi
are
European
"dominoes"
service, has been The
hence
ot
sugars
the day-time only.
Automatic
cubes
the
hot,
products
lai^e storage-bins which
with
the
leaves
If sugar
filling. Certain
while
and
sugar
drum
crystals,
is
heater
a
sugar.
set
a
the
size of
and
dust,
coarser
to
a
17.
liable to cake
granulator
of
series,one
The
It is sometimes
Fia.
while
in
drying in the lower
lower
also
type.
is fitted with
upper
fan
(Fig. 17) is
usually operated
are
and
pipes
The
fan.
of the
dischai^
the
illustration American
the
at
over
exhaust
an
The
granulator-dnims
above
is drawn
the usual
granulator,
Two
ot steam-pipes
air
through Hersey
121
PRODUCT,
extending through the middle
large group
a
THE
of lumpproper
into or
the
loaf-sugars
grain with
a
are
two
ing clos-
packed three
or
for restaurant
paper,
United
and
States. are
heavy
all made pure
by
sugar-
122
REFINING.
SUGAR
is variously treated, This magma sirup to form a magma. to form cubes ^by pressing,molding or in specialcentrifugals, slabs
directlyor dried.
cubes
The
closets.
The
and
These
usually dried in hot ready for packing after they have been
bars.
are
slabs and
bars
cut
are
are
sawed
or
to
form
cut
and
loaf-sugar. These are broken down in making crushed loafHsugar. Powdered ness or pulverized sugars of various degrees of finemade granulated in a mill and by grinding coarse are passing it through bolting-cloth. which Brilliant or candy "A" is a large grain sugar is barreled while moist,just as it leaves the centrifugal-machine. Confectioners' '^A'' is a smaller grain-sugar packed in the sawed
same
way.
The
soft
described.
white
sugars,
These
and
yellow, have already been packed while moist, directly
are
sugars
ing centrifugals. The soft sugars are classified accordto a series of arbitrary trade color-standards. Granulated forms now a large part of the output sugar ments. of a refineryand the total product of the smaller establishThis grade is classified according to the size of the crystalsas extra coarse, coarse, fine and extra fine granulated. The ordinary commercial granulated is the fine grade. Fruit granulated is the finer screenings from fine-grained sugar. from
As
the
has
been
explained in an early chapter of this work, the size of the grain is determined in the pan-boiling. " Barrel ^The sirups purged from low56. Syrup." "
grade remelt strikes form the residual sirup which is usually As rule the sirup is packed in barrels for the market. a diluted
55** Brix
to
and
reboiled
"smooth"
before
barreling.
Certain
refineries pay especial attention to this sirup and char-filter it to improve the color before reboiling. This
sirup varies in composition through rather wide rived limits,depending on the class of sugar from which it is deand as
16 per 57.
in
Polarization
follows:
cent; ash
a
other
upon
6 per
cent;
factors. 34
per 22
water
be typical analysis would cent; reducing sugars 22 per per cent; organic non-sugar A
cent.
Yield
of
refinery is
Refined
expressed
Sugar. in
"
The
percentage
yield of terms
of the
sugar raw
^
^
124
SUGAR
REFINING.
and a sampled and analyzed, as in the case of raw sugars, weighted average analysisis calculated for the period. The barrel-sirupis sampled and measured by lots and the' density and polarization of each is determined. Weekly of made a analyses are complete composite sample and a weighted average analysis for the technical period is computed. At the end of every period usually the technical an periods include four weeks inventory of the material in process is made. All material containing sugar is measured and sampled. The density and purity of the samples determined. The pounds of solids are computed from the are "
"
of the
volume
cubic
per
in cubic
material
foot,
indicated
as
feet and
the
pounds solids density. The solids
by the
The solids less multiplied by the purity give the sucrose. the sucrose give the solid impurities. In this way the total and total impurities in the stock are solids,total sucrose ascertained.
To
these
compute
figuresto available sirup and
be assumed that all the granulated sugar, it may impurities will go to make sirup of the same composition as that produced during the period. available
Then:
Lbs.
solid
impuritiesin stock
cent
solid
impuritiesin sirup produced
Per
lbs. available
=
figure would
loss
such,
than
to
refinery
a
of
of
expense
securing
the
to
(1)
refinery,
determined.
customarily
now
exceptional
no
sirup in stock;
practical value
more
as
having and
complications
be
not
number
the
X 100
This
conditions.
temperature
accurate scientifically
aa
refers The
data
are
prohibitive. be
not
temperature C.
desirable
condition
This
A.
above The
96"
corrections
or
be
only
may to
technical
(G. L. S.)
a,
approximation
of
excessive
either more
Sugar
properly
control
a
less
or
p.
to
true
the
laboratory
nature.
Dr.
shown
that
has
260)
figures
irregular heat.
of
arbitrary
Analysis, applied
to
and
polarizing
cane-sugars
beet-sugars. of the
statements
accomplish
conditions,
of of
(Handbook
and
closer
a
locations
necessitate
control' figures and
they
in
would
Browne
corrections
that
clear, however,
It is not would
one
where
this
very
report
refinery
temperature
designed
are
successfully. is
to
fluctuations
comparable
Under with
give are
average
its
tive compara-
not
sive exces-
ture tempera-
predecessors.
125
INTRODUCTORY.
available sirupin stock X polarizationof sirupproduced
Lbs,
100
=ibs. Total
in
sucrose
available
stock"
in
sucrose
granulatedin
in
sucrose
sirup in stock.
sirup in
stock
(2) =
lbs.
stock.
Example: Assume
a
stock
of 1,180,000 lbs. solids
in process
^50,000 lbs.
sucrose
330,000 lbs. solid impurities. Assume
a
barrel-sirup produced
containing:
as
Sucrose
34.2%
Water ,
Solid
.
impurities(ash,glucose,organic)
22.1% 43.7% 100
330,000X100^ 778
lbs. available '
43.7
sirup; H,
.
(1) V /
032X34.2
^=258,261
"
lbs.
in
sucrose
in.stock: sirup y
100
f
(2) \ /
850,000-258,261 =591,739 lbs. available granulated in stock. The stock
increase in process
or
at
in
decrease the end
the
of the
available
period
as
granulated ia compared to that
the actual from beginning is added to or subtracted tion calculaproduction of granulated for the period; the same is made with regard to the sirup produced and the sirup These and in stock. net productions of sugar sirup arq fcr the period. at
the
These of
net
weights produced
melted
are
each
divided
by the weight
give the net productions per cent melt. and The. analyses of the granulated, the soft sugars sirup calculated to per cents of the melt by multiplying each are constituent of the analysis of each of these three products of the melt. by the percentages of the product in terms The of these analyses p^ various constituents cent of the raws
to
126
SUGAR
melt
be
can
totaled
REFINING.
give the analysis of the combined
to
of the
A refinery in terms of the melt. comparison of this analysis with that of the melt itself gives the
output
increase of
decrease
or
of each
constituent
during
the
of net
yields for
process
refining. To
illustrate
this,let
us
assume
set
a
refineryperiod and calculate the loss in Polarization
of the melt. .
.
for the
sucrose
a
period:
.94.9**
Net
yield of granulated Soft sugars produced Net sirupproduction
84.
3% 8.9% 4.6%
at 88.8**
polarization polarization
at 34.1"
Then, in melt
Sucrose
94 .
84 in
Sucrose
granulated %
melt
"
=
"
84
30 .
8
in soft sugars
Sucrose
3X100 '""
=
90
% melt
9X88
8
=
=
7 90 .
4.5X34.1 .
Sucrose
m
"
or
in total
Sucrose
melt1
%
sirup
^ =
"
"
=
"
^"
1
63 .
product %
melt
93
73 .
lost in
Sucrose
refining% melt of
invert-sugar,ash, water
and
same
17 .
method
Following this loss of
1
the gain calculation,
organic
non-sugar-
or
may
be traced. Rouiine
Control.
The
"
depends largely upon materials
in the
routine
control
determinations
successive
steps of the
of
of the refinery the purity of the
process.
The
char-
entirelycontrolled on a basis of purity. of these purity tests required day and night is The number in a separate so large that the work is usually conducted floor,by boys trained laboratory,on or near the vacuum-pan free to do to do only this testing. This leaves the chemists the analyticalwork involved in the technical control. filterand
pan-work
are
The work.
The
of Casamajor is used
purity method
dilute
material
any
convenient
and
the
"
"
Brix
is clarified with
is determined.
15" and
20"
to
Brix,
part of the
A
subacetate
dry
Home's
in this
sirup is diluted
or ^liquor, magma density,usually between
corrected
127
METHODS.
ANALYTICAL
SPECIAL
tion solu-
lead, if such
of
and after filtration it is polarized preparation is necessary, directly. The polariscope reading multipUed by the factor corresponding to the degree Brix givesthe purity coefficient. The
factors
computed
are
from
formula
the
Factor
=
'-
The
TTT**
-;
Sp. gr.X degree
puritiesfor
table of
of Home's
figuringis simplifiedby the
use
Brix use
in
refinerycontrol,given
p"ge 526.
on
Methods.
Analytical
Special
59.
ri^tinemethod
Black
"
Paste.
"
^A
determining the available phosphate-paste is as phosphoric acid (PsOs) in monocalcic convenient
Wash
follows:
10
Make
to the
up
Titrate
20
paste into
of the
grams
distilled water,
with
for
mark, mix
up
the
of the
flask
200-cc.
lumps with thoroughly by shaking and
breaking
of the filtrate (1 gram
cc.
a
rod.
a
filter.
normal paste) with tenth-
alkali^using methyl-orange as the indicator. hydrochloric acid. gives the aciditydue to uncombined number
of
cc.
of
alkali,with methyl-orange
N/10
This The
indicator
hydrochloricacid (HCl). 20-cc. portion of the filtrate, Titrate a second using pheThis titration gives the total acidity nolphthaleinindicator. the free acid. The culations caldue to the acid phosphates and X 0.365=
per
cent
free
made
are
follows:
as
Number
phenolphthalein indicator"
with orange
indicator X 0.35=
per
cent
of
N/10
cc.
available
cc.
N/10
alkali
alkali,methylphosphoric acid
(P2O5). Bone-black:
Preparation of the Sample, ^After thoroughly by subsampling. mixing the sample reduce it to 200-300 grams Pass a magnet through a thin layer of the sample to remove of particles and a
filters.
"
iron'that
may
have
Grind
about
100
porcelain mortar
through kept in
a a
moisture,
lOO-mesh
to
a
gotten into it from grams
of this
prepared char in
powder, all of which
sieve.
The
tightlystoppered bottle
should
pass
be sample prevent absorption of
ground to
the retorts
must
128
Bone4)lack: the
REFINING.
SUGAR
Determination.
Moisiwre
^Heat
"
of
grams
hours
during four
portion of the subsample
unground
6
'
at 110*' C.
ground char with
of the acid
and
50
water
and
weight Loss
the
contents
Residue
and
water
100
of
mix
and
in page
washed
by
sulphate -5(CaSOO.
20
and
crucible
the
wash
residue
carbon;
cent
cent
per
insoluble
matter.
Sulphate. ^To 2,0
of Calcium
"
150
cc.
about.
100
cc.
water, and
dilute to the mark 200
(
cc.
=
Proceed
with
after
water,
of
char) of with the analysis as is 20
grams
362, using the concentrated
solution obtained
sulphate precipitateshould be first Calculation: barium decantation. Weight cent 5833 X 100 calcium-sulphate X per barium
The
above.
Evaporate
about
the filtrate to
as
hydrochloric-
lamp.
temperature,
room
filter.
described
a
Add
Boil fifteen minutes.
cooling to
2 grains
powdered char, in a 250-cc. flask,add 25 cc. concentrated hydrochloric acid, gradually. cc.
of the
grams
^Treat
gently for fifteen minutes,
Boil
Determination
Bone^lack:
"
of concentrated
cc.
ignition-J- 2X100= per 2X100= after ignition-r-
on
Moiter,
cible Dry the crudisappearance of chlorides. at lOO** C. and weigh; igniteto constant
the flame
over
10
Gooch
tared
a
to
Insolvble
of water.
cc.
filter through with
and
Carbon
Bone-black:
=
.
Bone-black:
Determination
of Calcium
Sulphide, "
^To
25
of powdered char in a 250-cc. flask add 0.5 gram potassium chlorate,then 25 cc. of boilingwater and follow this with 100 cc. concentrated hydrochloric acid,added very grams
of the
Proceed
slowly. described
above.
as
in the determination Great
care
must
of calcium
be exercised
in
sulphate,
adding
the
in order that no sulphur be lost as acid, very slowly at first, sulphate obtained hydrogen sulphide (H2S). The barium of the sulphide and in this analysis corresponds to the sum for Subtracting that already found sulphate in the char. the calcium-sulphate leaves the barium-sulphate equivalent to
the
calcium
-^
20 X.
phate"bariu sul(Total barium sulphide. Calculation: calcium from the phate) sulsulphate derived calcium 3091X100= sulphide (CaS). per cent
ANALYTICAL
SPECIAL
Bone-black:
Vclumelric
Determination
of the Iron,^
followingreagents are required: potassium permanganate: (1) Standard of the salt in 1000
grams
against
solution
iron
an
Dissolve
follows:
2.5
Dissolve
of water.
cc.
129
METHODS.
of
known of
Check
^The
"
4
5
to
this solution
strength, prepared
piano-wire,or
aa
of the
grade of iron wire that is prepared especiallyfor standardizing, in a small quantity of hydrochloricacid,and dilute this solution Use 50-cc. portions of to 250 cc. in a graduated flask. this solution in
under
grams
the
conditions
of the
standardizing the permanganate. (2) Phosphoric acid and manganous
50
grams
water, add
analysis,as below, solution:
of manganous with the addition
250
sulphate crystals in about 250 cc. of of a few drops of sulphuric acid; of phosphoric acid solution of 1.3 specific gravity,
cc.
followed
in order
by 150 sulphuric acid.
and
of water
cc.
The
cc.
of
phosphoric solution
may
100
the 85 per cent acid (H8PO4). chloride solution: Dissolve 30 (3) Stannous
prepared
centrated con-
be
from
granulated tin
in 125
cc.
heating. Solution
with
Dissolve
of concentrated is
promoted
of pure
grams
hydrochloric acid,
by the addition
of
a
pieces of platinum foil. Dilute the solution with 250 cc. and filter it through asbestos. Add 250 cc. of conof water centrated hydrochloricacid and 500 cc. of water to the filtrate.
few
(4)
chloride
Mercuric
salt in 1000
cc.
Proceed
with
the
powdered
the
the
analysis as follows:
bone-black
of the
50 grams
and
Ignite
10
grams
digest the residue with
30
of cc.
hydrochloric acid, with gentle boilingduring Filter the solution through a Gooch crucible
fifteen minutes. wash
Dissolve
of water.
of concentrated
and
solution:
residue
thoroughly with
small
quantities of
contained in a largeErlenmeyer filtrate, chloride solution flask, to nearly boilingand add the stannous to it drop by drop until the yellow color disappears. Add chloride solution,all at once, and" mix 60 cc. of the mercuric well by shaking the flask; add 60 cc. of the phosphoric acid
hot
and
*
Heat
water.
solution and
manganous
Adapted
the
from
5th ed., p. 206.
Clowes
and
600
cc.
Coleman's
of water.
"
Quantitative
Analysis,"
r
130
SUGAR
The
titration of the
conducted the
in the
solution
flask be
may
The
flask,in the
and
the
the
standard
washings
REFINING.
material
placed
prepared as
above
be
may
white
background or a large porcelain dish. should be thoroughly washed a
over
transferred
latter case, added to the
to
solution
solution
in the
from
dish.
Add
burette, with until the Uquor assumes constant a faint pink color, stirring, which should disappear after three or four minutes' standing. Make the a similar titration of the solution prepared with iron wire solution.
to
permanganate
ascertain
The
iron
value
of the
permanganate
percentage of iron in the char may
calculated from Bone-black:
the
9,
the data obtained Calcium
in the two
Carbonate
be
readily
titrations.
and
The Phosphates. calcium carbonate be determined by the methods on may This determination is of less importance than 389. page priorto the invention of the mingling process (50), when it to filter highly alkaline beetnsugarsolutions. was necessary The percentage of phosphoric acid is of no particular the is to be sold on basis a significance, except spent char value. In this its the of fertilizing event, customary methods used. of agricultural analysisare Bone-black: Thoroughness of the Revivification,^The test of the efficiency of the revivification is of very great value in the control of the kilns. Tests are made at very frequent intervals throughout the day. volume of char add an To a measured of equal volume sodium hydroxide solution of 9" Brix. Heat the mixture in A a boiUng salt-water bath for two minutes. properly burned char will impart no color to the soda solution. A yellow or a brown color indicates a poor revivification (underburning), the depth of the color being directlyin proportion of organic matter to the amount remaining in the black. An excess of sulphides will give a greenish cast to the solution. "
"
O^erburning occurs part of its lime caustic soda
when
the char is heated
is converted
solution
remain
into
the oxide.
uncolored
so
hot that Should
a
the
in the test described
sample of the char should be shaken with distilled and a drop of phenolphthalein solution added water to it. Overbuming is indicated by the solution turning red,due to above,
a
132
colors
the
REFINING.
SUGAR
the
of
unfiltcred
filtrates and
liquor and
make
The absorption of percentage complete analyses of each. well as the improveas ment color, ash and organic non-sugars, in purity and the change in the glucose ratios may now of the be calculated for each char, using the constituents A supply of a good grade of unfiltered hquor as a basis. should
bone-black such
many
tests
be
kept
as
standard
a
of
comparison, if
to be made.
are
It is essential in all tests of this character
that all the
ditions con-
experiment shall be identical for all the samples Certain of black to be compared. points of the procedure best must necessarilybe arbitrary and the conditions can of the
be
chosen
to
In
so
temperature, etc., should
particularrequirements of the ment. expericonditions far as is possible,factory as regards ratio of char to sugar, density of the liquor,
suit the
be maintained. of
decolorizing power
The
of
means
a
colorimeter.
is determined
bone-black
for this purpose
instrument
Stammer's
by
form, and the results obtained by This instrument consists different operators are comparable. for comparing the depth of essentiallyof an arrangement is
color
of
convenient
very
a
colunm
a
of
glass plates. An of the of
a
solution
disk, and
eye-piece and lowered
by
column
of
sugar
eye-piece is under
that a
means
so
with
standard
arranged that
examination
appears
upon
coloredthe
color
one
half
of the standard
The glass on the other. tube containing the glasses are raised and of a rack and pinion, the length of the
solution
length is shown
solution
being varied scale
at
the
time;
same
this
pointer carried by slide. The the a theory of this instrument depends upon variations in the intensity of the color of the solution,proportionate In using the colorimeter to the length of its column. seen
a
object is
the as
on
the
on
disk
to
by
means
of
a
equalize the intensities
of the
colors
through the eye-piece, by lengthening
of the solution under examination. shortening the column The ment strength of solution being known, a comparative stateof depth of color in terms of the sucrose present may or
be made, to
an
with
or
the
reading
on
the
expression showing the the standard.
scale may
easily be reduced
depth of color
as
compared
SPECIAL
This
instrument
2
by
liter
per
heating it
is
pure
heat
portion half
of
char
hour,
an
color.
standard,
filter,
In
known
Comparable certain
conditions
The the volume Fill
of
certain take
depth
\vith
same
volume
the
cylinder, portion shows white
similar
and of
the
add
the same
depth
intensity
background.
proportional
to
The the
this
to
latter of
that
as
of
volume
decolorizing
color of
power
measured
a
described
above.
Nesslerizing,
a
burette
when
examined added the
to
a
solution; in
decolorized
of
in
determined,
the
water
of
experiments.
solution from
in
adopting
filtered
and
standard
the
of
all
Treat
in
used
decolorized
the
water
same
those
to
in
as
the
to
comparison. by
roughly
solution
standard-color
a
of
bone-black for
follows:
as
intensity
obtained
be
may
example,
bone-black
the
them
then
weighed
referred
color,
convenient
to
colorimeter,
a
cylinder,
a
power
for
standard
be
only
mine deter-
a
the
of
a
is
adhering
and
of
work
can
decolorizing absence
efficiency
capacity
results
with
determine of
all
solution,
time,
of
depth
sugar-house
decolorizing
bone-black,
length
the
the
represents
decolorizing. a
in
caramel until
C,
215"
solution
this
again
the
standard
the
of
and
difference
The
in
certain
a
about
mel, cara-
recommends
Prepare
examining
color
izing decolor-
with
prepared Duboscq
to
voliune
the
be
used.
In
of
depth
measured
a
should
cane-sugar
the
manner;
instrument.
decomposed.
the
determining
following
being
his
for
in
used
the
quantity
133
METHODS.
solution
definite
grams
of
in
char
a
standard-color a
be
may
of
power A
ANALYTICAL
a
similar until
a
solution over
is char.
inversely
a
SUGAR
CONTROL
CHEMICAL
SUGARS
ANALYSIS.
AND
OF
THE
CONSTITUENTS
OTHER
FACTORY.
OF
THE
CANE
AND
ITS
PRODUCTS.
Sugars.
60. the
of
sugars
Sucrose,
levulose,
the
showing of
classed
are
sugars
chemist
of
a
cane
are
sucrose,
those
chemical on
The
processes.
and
A
A
458.
few
of
the the
concern
in
given
are
table
physical properties
immediately
factory,
cane-sugar
of their
account
on
page
which
sugars
under
carbohydrates.
as
these.
chemists
manufacturing
given
of
reducing-sugars,
cane-sugar
chemically
is
other
importance
important
more
of
properties
of
are
carbohydrates
the
by
anal3rtical and
in
influence
work
important
most
possibly
them
glucose,"
name
and
with
usually grouped the
from
sugar
analytical
is the
cane-sugar,
and
"
the
in
of
levulose.
or
Dextrose
manufacture
importance
and
dextrose,
the
^In
"
the
following
paragraphs. Sucrose,
01.
sugar.
^This sugar
"
and
kingdom In
a
Saccharose,
in its pure
classification
derivatives
of
commercial sugar-
but
beet, the
been
the
United
Sucrose hemihedral
its
and
very
rich
are
belongs formula
in of
success,
sugar
the
to
is
though from
this
very
conunevce.
disaccharides, The the
sugar-cane,
The
palms.
from
of
vegetable
CijHjjOn.
rivaling the
sucrose,
made
annually
certain
sugar
the
are
cane-sugar
maple-tree, and
commercial
a
it
sugars
of
refined
is the
Cane-
or
in the
distributed
widely
state
hexoses,
manufacture
table-sirup of the
of the
sources
is often
cane
is very
Saccharon,
sorghum-
tropical
plant
cane,
has
not
large quantities
it, in nearly
all
of
parts
States.
crystallizes in anhydrous
the
monoclinic
transparent
system,
crystals.
The
forming specific 134
135
DEXTROSE. .
1710
gravity
crystalsat
the
readily soluble
is
crose
is
of
in water
and
to
it melts
ferments
on
in
It
light.
with
the
other the
to
lose
point
is
substances
has
the of
ray
a
is termed
right and
will be
shown
polariscopic apparatus
is also
is
for
distributed
in
in mixtures
CgHiaOe and
Dextrose
inverting
forms
rhombic
and
C,
the melt
readily soluble
is
with
it
belongs
always it and
sucrose,
the
crystalswhose
hydrate at
forms
80P-90"
in water
solubility in the latter varying with It rotates
widely
it is found
formula
on
crystals which is
fermentation
to
ent pres-
levu-
equal quantities.
144"-146"
Dextrose
of
hexoses.
and
dextrose
transparent
regard
by
promptly
sugar
is utilized, as
where
Its chemical
Anhydrous
is converted
but invert
the
to
^This sugar
"
sugar-cane, in formed
are
and
sugars.
monosaccharides,
in
of acids
plane of polarization of
construction
the
sugars.
action
other
many
property
vegetable kingdom,
the
The in
plane
This
Dextrose.
62*
poses decom-
sucrose
84.
information
rotates
analysis of
the
The
C.
sugar.
rotating the
in
100"
Moist
409.
dextrorotatory. (see 67),
C.
160"
given in
common
of
property
of
into invert
page
Sucrose
120"-125"
above
Further
given
of
be impurity, may C. without browning;
other
or
directly fermentable,
is not
ferments. is
is
sucrose
Sucrose
alcohol,ether, chloroform
raffinose
temperature
a
temperatures
on
many
of
temperature
a
at
at
salts
free
sucrose,
heated
It
glycerine.
anhydrous
Dry
Su-
alcohol.
in diluted
and
in absolute
practically insoluble
(Gerlach).
C. is 1.58046
prjs
melting crusts
or
C. in
and
its dilution
alcohol, the and
ture. tempera-
plane of polarization of light
to
the
right. The
chemical
of dextrose of to
absorbing lower
reduction of
are
dextrose,
methods based
of
upon
combined
oxides.
cupric
for
the
its property,
oxygen
The to
detection
and
reaction cuprous
reducing
oxid. 458.
estimation
in alkaline
utilized
refer to the table, page
and
For
in
solution,
metallic
oxides
analysis is
other
the
properties
136
Levulose.
63.
dextrose and
and
in sugar-cane.
sucrose
is a fruit-sugar. Levulose colorless, (keto-hexose); it forms
called
is often
usually associated with It is widely distributed,
is
^This sugar
"
fructose
or
monosaccharide, hexose shining, needlenshaped crystals of which
melt is
95"-105"
at
This CflHigOfl.
It rotates
the
is therefore
these
The
tals crysof levulose
formula in water
alcohol.
and
plane of polarizationof light to the left,and termed the cane laevorotatory. In mature
quantity of levulose is small Both
soluble
is very
sugar
system,
produce.
chemical
The
C
rhombic
the
difficult to
hygroscopic and
are
FACTORY.
THE
OF
CONTROL
CHEMICAL
often
are
sugars
compared with
as
in faint
only
present
the dextrose.
occasionallythe levulose is absent. Even though levulose be absent or present
traces,
and
quantity in the juice it always appears in defecation-process molasses. This is not entirely due to inversion and has
sucrose a
direct
low
inverted.
been
Such
polarization and
in
large proportion
increase
very
levulose
of
when
occur
may
molasses
a
small
in very
no
will often
high,
true
have
sucrose-
number. The
or
reappearance
action
A
Likewise rized
and
of alkaUs
part
and to
conditions
in
phenomenon
is due
heat
is converted levulose
the
the dextrose.
into
levulose. isome-
be
are
chemical
the
to
upon
may
There
into dextrose.
converted this
dextrose
similar
under
of levulose
salts of alkalis with
the
of
increase
ences refer-
many
and
technical
journals. It is direct
interestingto
polarization and
cane-molasses
differ but
Invert
64.
acids
note
and of
is said
Sugar.
certain
other
equal parts to
have
"
been
that according to de Haan
Clerget numbers
^
are
Verbal
used
When
carbonation
a
it is converted
reagents
and
hydrolized
synonymously
and
is acted
sucrose
of dextrose
commtinication
the
Uttle.
by
upon
into
a
The
levulose. inverted.
or
of sugars is called invert-sugar. The expressions "invert-sugar,"
"glucose"
of
*
The
ture mix-
sucrose
mixture
"reducing-sugars" and
in the
Archief, about
tories. cane-stigar labora-
1910
or
1911.
while
not
their appearance
during the
influences
products the
derivatives
of these
These as
of the and
mal abnor-
follows
:
same;
second^
firsts
fifthgaa-
esters;
,
compounds
numerous
ntuner-
of destructive
or
classified
roughly
A few
products.
eous
be
may
thirdfacids; fourth^alcohols
gums;
cane
yet
cane,
its
and
of manufacture.
process
closelyrelated
and
in the
result of fermentation
the
products, as
sugars
which,
a
are
occasionallymake ous
ucts.^ Prod-
Sugar-cane
of compounds large number occurring normally in the juice of the
There
"
of
Constituents
Abnormal
65.
137
CONSTITUENTS.
ABNORMAL
be
may
briefly mentioned:
CJEl^fi^f^^^
Mannose, have
CcHjjOq
been
of alkalies
action
cane-molasses lime
of
in been
has
perceptible
through
certain
fermentations
(CgHgOa) The
formation
of
wortliless
for
the
*
Report
gum,
have
levulose
in
Glycerol
been
such
of
polarization
gum
reported
prepared the
5th
it at
that
as
is of
by
in
canes
Browne,
La.
product
renders
a
the
the
author's
request.
Congress
p.
237,
vol.
31.
courtesy
of
The
ravages.
soon
through
the
by
occurrence
them
(+200),
serious
cane-productS| unless
International
Planter, 1905,
the
frequent insect
or
and
produced
introduces
sucrose,
of
is
common
high specific rotation
(65, 66) is included
who of
freezing
viscous
most
a
3. 383. "
excess
an
and
sugar-maker,
milling. Its that
article
Browne,
A.
this
times
This
in
occur
amounts.
(Froschlaich), and
injured by
canes
*
when
sirups.
(C^HgO^)
the
fermentations,
Leuconostoc
into
juices and
ketoP
of
enemy
various
three
They
in considerable
of dextrose
(C"Hi()05)n. This
troublesome
in
only
by^ the
Gums.
Dextran
of
produced
is formed
body
in small
molasses
fermented
cane-molasses
clarification.
This
Dimethyl
and
in
are
amounts
the
of
sugar-glucose
levulose.
and
reduction
the
amount
2d.
in
used
(C^Rifi^).
Mannite
in
dextrose
upon
'
Pellet
products
two
same.
non-fermentable
^^"
reported by
These
Egypt.
from
of the
closely related derivatives
and
Sugars
1st.
the
of
Applied
Dr.
error
gum
Charles
Chemistry,
is
138
CONTROL
CHEMICAL
OF
dextran, with
of
Hydrolysis
b^ alcohol.
first removed
FACTORY.
THE
acids,
gives dextrose. Levan.
A
found
gum
products in Australia This
formans. in
raw
sugar;
was
it
a
causes
produces the slimy A
Cellulan.
of
The
insoluble
giving
the
iodine), and
alkali
'
in
destructive
the
of
a
tions fermenta-
laige leathery dextran).
yields
cellulose
coloration
of
tanks
(distinctionfrom of
and
sucrose
in certain
consists
hydrolysis with
on
cane sugar-
a
boiling alkaH
reactions blue
in
specificrotation acids,yieldslevulose. has
Browne
with
and
cuprammonium
of
by
in caustic
all
rapid inversion
to
It is formed
treatment
on
very
sirup, and
cane-juice and
gum
and
found
gum
be
levan, with
in Louisiana.
sugar-house
lumps
of
Hydrolysis
of "40.
found
levan, which
gum,
Steel
and
produced by the Bac. levani-
and
organism
^
Smith
by
uct prod-
a
(solubilityin
with
zinc-chloride
acids is converted
into
dextrose. A
Mannan.
found
gum
deposits of fermented
juices and
acids, gives
with
mannan,
occasionallyin sirups.
Hydrolysis
substance, which
found speaking does not belong to the gums, was of hot-room in large quantities in the scums Louisiana.
is of
It
fungoid origin and
acid
hydrochloric
sedementary of
mannose.
(C1SH30N2O12?). This
Chitine
the
5^elds
strictly
by Browne
*
molasses
in
hydrolysis with
on
amine-sugar, glucose-amine
an
(C.H,jO.NH^. 3d.
Acids.
f
Formic, acetic,propionic,butyric, capric,and acids
of
fermentation-products to very
the
latter
lime
upon
through the Bac.
lactic
above,
common
The
all been
fatty series, have
of the
acid the
be
may sugars
agency
other
among
the
found
cane-juices and
sirups.
acid
mentioned
in
occurrence
various
should
juices, sirups, and
formed
of the
be
either
by the
In
tion addias
of
molasses. action
of
juice during clarification,or
of various
organisms,
Oideum
as
lactis,
lacticus, etc. '
^
^
International
a
La.
Planter,
"
"
"
Journal,
Su^ar 1905,
p.
238,
vol.
4, 430. 34.
"
140
CONTROL
CHEMICAL
OF
THE
FACTORY.
20.00%
Water.
20.00% Silica.
Si02
Potash.
0.60
K2O
50
3 .
CaO
Lime,
1
50 .
Magnesia^ Phosphoric
8.00
Ash.
MgO
0.
acid,
Sulphuric
acid,
10
0.20
PjOs SOg.
1
60 .
Chlorine, Soda,
a
0.40
iron,
NajO,
etc.,
Fe20sf 0.20
etc
1
62.00
fiusan
Sucrose
32
Dextrose
14
00 .
00 .
Levulose
16.
Albuminoids
00
0
30 .
Amids
asparagin)
(as
Amido
acids
0.30
)
aspartic
(as
1 .
bodies.
Nitrogenous
Nitric
3.00
.
70 .
acid
I6
0 .
(Tot8lN-0.6%).
Ammonia
0.02
Xanthin
bodies
0
30 .
Other
nitrogenous
bodies.
0.23 .
Soluble
( Xvlan
2.00
gums
,
acids
Combined
3.00
Glutinic,
charinic
(
acids,
Molasses
also
contains
00 .
Sac5
etc.
100.00%
TotaL
2
.
,
j Melassinic,
2.00
acids
Free
)
Pectin.etc
Araban
00
100.00%
small
a
of
quantity
carmelization
"
the
product, of
by
1
cane-sugar
bodies
of
uncertain
Caramelen,
Caramelan,
Zuckerarten,
and
evaporation
overheating
colored
of
amount
3d
ed.,
1210.
depending
these
Caramel
boiling.^ and
is
mixture
a
the
upon
is of
ture tempera-
always
formed
several
dark-
composition.
Caramelin,
tee
von
Lippmann,
Ch"unie
der
OPTICAL
METHODS
APPARATUS
The
67.
AND
Polariscope.
**
and
called
saocharimeter"
Sucrose, in has
the
ray
of
passing
it into
rhombohedron The
spar. so
that
the
into
obtuse and
of the
two
is
18.
Confining the
cane-sugar
our
Iceland
is then
prism B,
a
ground ofif
are
through
surfaces
the
polished
are
passes
upon
whose
the
instrument
of
into
from an
balsam.
an
the
Other this
but
present
ray
a
separated
chemist,
and
used,
are
passing
remarks
The
A
the
from
crystal of
68".
for the
ceinent,and
Fio.
prism is made
Canada
prism
reflected
which
by
together again, in their original
answer
it is
light is accomplished
property
prism, Fig 18,
angles and
the
On
the
parts,
positions, with will
a
in
each
are
cemented
of
othei'substances,
this
transparent
a
angles
cut
of
This
prism.
surfaces
acute
and
plane of polarization of
of
ray
from
cut
end
is
polariscope.
Nicol
a
the
used
sugars
is taken
polarization of the
The
in
polarimeter'*
names
sometimes
rotating the
of the
'*
The
many
light. Advantage
used
optical methods
by the
also
with of
instrument
sugars
are
common
property
construction
The
polariscope.
a
ANALYSIS.
MANIPULATIONS.
"
of
quantitative estimation usually
SUGAR
IN
purposes.
ordinary prism by
extraordinary
or
it
prism
this
which
ray,
the
balsam
polarized
polariscope
the
properties the to
description
light into
through
forms
ray,
and
construction
of
depends. three should
sugars be
of most noted
interest that 141
sucrose
to
142
ANALYSIS.
SUGAR
IN
METHODS
OPTICAL
fore polarizationto the right and is thereThe termed rotatory a right-hand sugar. expresdons dextroand also applied to sucrose. dextrogyratoiy are also rotates the plane to the right. Levulose Dextrose
rotates
the
plane
of
rotates
the
plane
to
hand and
the
left and
Quartz is of
sugar.
is used
due
of a sugar to power differs for different sugars. certain
under
left-
left hand,
kinds, right and
two
a
to sugar.
The
determined
or laevorotatory,
types of polariscopesto compensate
in certain
for the rotation
is
rotate
the
The
number
plane
of
polarization
expressing this, as conditions,is termed the
standard
specificrotatory power. is
passed through sugar solutions of of the solution different concentrations, or through columns If the
polarizedray
of different
rotation
will be
lengths,it with
varies
observed
strength of
the
that the
the
of
amount
solution
and
the
length of the column. These
properties'of
utilized in the them
construction
the
view
in
instruments,
as
transition
of the
given farther be divided
on,
the
and
quartz
The
are
keeping
various
will be
into two
tint-instruments.
types of stood. readily under-
classes,viz.,shadow shadow-instruments
polariscopes using white light,as from a kerosene-lamp, and those requiring a monochromatic The former usually employed are light, the yellow ray. and the latter in scientific investigawork in commercial tions. may
A will
be
subdivided
spar,
polariscope,and
descriptionsof
Polariscopesmay and
Iceland
sugars,
into
description of the polariscopes in general use will be given in the following paragraphs and
brief be
sufficient referred
for
the
hand-books
to
of
purposes
of
descriptions of the
the
this book.
polariscope for
theory and
reader
The
tailed de-
more
construction
is
of
the
instruments.
Polariscope. Compensating ment ^The optical parts of this instru(Schmidt " Haensch). The in indicated in Fig. 19. polariscope shown are 68.
Half
-
shadow
"
the
figureis of the singlecompensation type. modified At 0 there is *aslightly Jellet-Corny Nicol prism,
COMPENSATING
HALF-SHADOW
at
(r
is
wedge
plate ot levorotatory quartz,
a
movable
by
quarts-wedge, vernier.
The
rotation an
is
of
fixed
in
scale
upon
E
quartz-wedge
has
the
of
means
plane
cane-sugar.
for
These
M,
screw
to
wliich
which
to
note
moved,
work,
quartz-wedges
is
and
a
quartz-
at
the to are
P
is
a
attached
the
the
distance
the
in compensating
is attached
technical
"
is
polarization due
of
optically active body,
graduated,
the
at
position,
t"een
143
FOLABISCOPE.
to
wedge.
read of
for
the
interpoaing The
percentages
scale of
dextrorotatoiy
144
The latuB, of
parte G, E, and i.e., that
observation-tube,
observing
the
right
are
lamp
in
field, and
for
K
lines
the
is placed
of
is
the in
reflector extreme
from
light
prism,
the
used
the
at
in
H
telescope and
Nicol
the
At
be
to
telescope
rays
plane
Hubstance
lenses
two
the
to
the
appa-
the
of
figure.
is
are
transmitting
parallel
the 7
The
scale.
The
solvent,
in
at
deviation
the
above.
at
compensating
the
suitable
a
prism;
the
reading
for
shown
as
Mirol
a
for
in
ANALYSIS.
BUGAR
constitute
explained
as
dissolved
analyzer,
F
compenaates
polarization,
examined,
IN
METHODS
OPTICAL
the the
forming
polariaer.
The
described
instrument A
type.
in
having
of the
The the
and
neutral
of the
is
a
in
uniformly
right other
left, one-half
or
and
the
the
compensating
light.
It
wedges
of
scribed de-
opposite
The
arrango-
23.
shaded
Of
shown
already
instruments,
controlling the compensating
the
that
verniers.
Fig,
above
is
wedges
quartz
scales and
is shown
wedges
point,
of
sets
two
field of vision
screw, to
two
tion angle-compensa-
instrument
differs from
polariscope
optical properties ment
is of the
double-compensating
This
in Fig. 20.
above
the
is from
this
that
this
disk
be
set
If the
disk.
wedge,
when
at
milled
slightly turned will
half-shaded
in^rument
be
shaded
disk takes
and its
HALF-SHADOW
FOLABISCOPE
GLASS
WITH
double-compensating instrument
A
is shown
in
145
SCALES.
construction
of recent
The
optical parts of this instrument are by the cap (7, and h"y plain exposure gla,ss plates. This protectionof the opticalparts is especially peculiar important in the tropics,where, owing to some with an climatic condition, the lenses often become coated opalescent film that can only be removed by polishing. These spiders and other insects plates also prevent minute in the tropics from The scale damaging the instrument. is lighted from the lamp, the lightbeing reflected by means of a prism and mirrors. Th^e telescope F is focused by a The screws for adjusting the position of the quartz screw. Fig. 20. protected from
.
have
wedges
long
stems
upon
table.
of the
observer
glass cell filled with a three of potassium is placed at B per cent solution of bichromate and serves ray-filtershould always be as a ray-filter.^This quirements used, varying the strength of the solution to suit the rein hand. The of the work prism at P is more readily accessible than in the older instruments, and all and other lenses optical parts are protected by glass An is the substitution important improvement covers. substantial stand of a very for the ordinary tripod support. rest
may
the
the hand
that
so
Half-shadow
69.
A
Glass
with
Polariscope
Scales
shown in Fig. 21 has Fri6). ^The instrument double-wedge compensation for use with white light. The for protection optical parts are enclosed in a metal case
(Josef-Jan
dust.
from
and
"
are
The
scales and
lighted by
verniers
engraved on glass are part of the polarized rays which
a
reflected upon them. Fri6 also make Messrs.
are
quartz-wedge polariscopewith of adjustable sensibility,designed for the U. S. Bureau Standards This instrument is double by Frederick J. Bates. ^
This
cell
strength of solution
lengths, the
of^the
ray a
white
100"
and
Z. Ver.
be
filter makes
assumes
of
product
should
solution
9. a
Deut.
the
length
difference
it 100.12".
Zuckerind.,
cell 3
a
According With
light instrument. without
a
1904,
the
in
filter he
(Circular
No.
521-558.)
For
the
the
other
streaa.sth
percentage
Schonrock
of 0.12"
the
pp.
by to
in length.
cm.
use
of
a
chromate bi-
polarization w"th
obtained
44, Bureau
a
'
reading
of
of Standards;
146
OPTICAL
METHODS
IN
quartz-wedge compengating Readings
Byetetn. The
Frifi inBtrumenta
Gcation
of the
the normal
weight
Fig.
principle
to
and
ANALTSIS.
baa
a
to
according
Commission
with
Lippich polorizingmade
accurately
graduated
of 26 grams
at
the 100
20"
0.01" to
sugar.
the G.
apeci-
and
true cubic
use
meter centi-
C.
Polarfscope
Hall-shadow
instrument.
are
International
flask at 20" 70.
be
may
SUQAB
22, is
the
(Julius Peters). "
double-compensating.
other
compensation
This
It is sinulor
in
polariscopes. The
r 148
OPTICAL
According and
is
to
IN
METHODS
Wiley
this inatniment
'
72.
Laurent
19
constructed
only
use
are
ecopes are
with
now
also white
(Maison
Polariscope
(Fig, 25)
Laurent
uae
extremely
eensitive with
the
for the
careful scientificresearches.
very
and
ia
capable of results but tittle inferior to those
which Landolt-Lippich polaiiscope,
for
ANALTSIiS.
BUQAR
with
originallya half-shadow
was
a
monochromatic
made
with
provided
with
either a
light, but half-shadow
Aaiiculturid Analysis, -1. HI.
The
inBtrument these polari-
or
triplefield,
compensation attachment
light. "
Laurent),"
for
LAURENT
In
the
Laurent
for
compensate of
plane measured
by
vernier.
The
rotation
of
of
means
As
read
for
which
the
to
the
also
and
has
a
the
is
the
compensating polariscope,
a
Laurent
be
may
of
screw,
directly.
stated, there
device
milled
a
cane-sugar percentages of sugar
which
be
may
of
scale
a
instrument
scale, called
scale, on
end
means
polarization by the sugar The is angular rotation
solution.
second
the
by
light,
monochromatic
polariscope,using
analyzer is revolved
the
149
POLARISCOPE;.
attached
instrument,
Fig. 2Q, and
the
to
shown
as
permits the
front in
of white
use
light. A
distinctive
scope
of
of this
polariis the adjustable polarizer. The
prism
Nicol a
feature
through
angle,thus varying the
small
light that
and
passes,
glass, half
is
is
strument. in-
passed
covered
Ito.24.
through
with
disk
a
thin
a
half-shadow
the
producing
thus
quartz,
which
of
same
the
of
polarized light
The
amount
the
at
sensitiveness
the
time
be rotated
may
of
plate of
feature
of
the
instrument.
type of polariscopeis much
This *
since
it has
no
quartz wedges
used be
to
in scientific
affected
research,
by variations
of temperature.
Transition-ttnt
73.
Scheibler.
^This
scribed that deinstrument, Fig. 27, resembles in general appearance, but actually differs
"
in 68
radically from
it.
in
having
an
which
produce the
plate B varied
by the
by rod
L.
It
The the
differs from
additional
of
means
polariscopeare half-shadow
Soleil-Ventzke-
Polariscope.
the
Nicol
color.
the
half-shadow at A
prism The
instrument.
as
those
a
tint of the
spur-wheel and optical parts at the
same
and
ment instru-
quartz field is
pinion, revolved front
in the Schmidt
end "
of the
Haensch
150
The
point the
eyes
revolving 74. scopea
is the
Remarks
general
are
The
Laurent
in France ments
in
countries.
and
The
tint for
varied
be
may
Polariscopes.
upon in
construction
by-
type
of
Belgium, work
is
very
necessity of
the
except but a
the
is
typies
room
ally gener-
reliable.
extensively
higher-grade
little used
dark
most
are
sensitive and
saccharifneter and
to
Polari-
"
of construction.
in detwls
polariscopes are
research
tint
is set at the
eensitive
triple-fieldinstruments
and
These
The
The
aimilar
described, differing only used.
instnuneDt
the
L.
rod
Half-shadow
ANALYSE.
is unifonn.
rose-violet.
a
General in
tint
aUGAB
when
field ia colored, and
neutral
most
IN
UETH0D8
OPTICAL
and
outside a
used
instruthose
monochn"-
GENERAL
BBMARKS
light render
matic
tor
factoiy The
in the
use
for
modified
the
with
use
UPON
originalLaurent polariscope u industry. The Laurent cane-sugar
white
light is
ion-tint instrumenta
trauHit
exclusively, especially in
the
or
be
cannot
less color-blind, and
All 200
polariscopes
with
half-length
a
lengths A
400
are
analysis of dark-colored
to
solutions
milling
the
fiOO-mm.
75.
The
Normal either
will be
materials
that
dear
are
COO
of this size is also supplied tube.
Other
polariscope
nun. a
satisfactorylength (or
but
process,
observation-tubes
tlie diffusion
with
a
factory
process
the
Scale.
Polarlscoplc
Veatzke
Polariscope scales
"
instruments
usually
divided
are
liave
only
the
The to
of cane-sugar
percentages
or
Scale.
read
oii.both. Ventzke
or
scale.
Ventzke
weight
solution
under
receive
to
100-mm.
and
circular degrees
cane-sugar
certain
more
preferable.
Weight.
Commercial
The
is
"ze
persons
,
fitted
or
mm.
by
accuracy
secure
polariscope is
400-mm.
using
the
in the
instrument
an
been
polariscopes. Tint instruments, with
are
long, and
mm.
almost
have
States, but
for observations.
enough
used
formerly
were
used
frequently difficult
it is
instrument.
convenient
a
United
largely replaced by shadow obviously,
151
POLARI8COP"B.
cane-sugar
of
the
diluted
standard in
or
to
material
of
be
cubic
100
conditions
percentages
scale is
in can
a
so
divided
dissolved centimeters
200-nim.
tliat,if
in water and
tube, the
a
and
observed
reading
152
OPTICAL
METHODS
used, the reading these "
conditiona
normal
to
weight"
^lommercial
the
will
divudoDs
of
be
100.
the
"
The
weight required under of the
the
instrument.
In
polariaation of
the
scale
cane^migar
is termed
readings
factor"
eepecially in
the
ANALYSIS.
BUQAB
give percentage or
work,
IN
are
sugars.
usually tenned
"degreea." nonnal
The are
very
the grams.
weight
generally
International The
used
for
throughout
Congress
flask used
German
the
with
of this
the
instruments, which world,
Applied normal
as
adopted b;
Chemistry, weight
must
is
26
hold
MANIPULATION
100
cubic
true
20" C. to The
is 26.048 Mohr's
100
cubic
and
100
be
cubic
true
at this
centimeters
of
Manipulation
dissolved
clarified the
and
fillan polarized, solution and place it
is to
Mohr*s
be
units
observed
the
The
light from
observer
at
geneially
dissolved
in
80)
of
'see
at
17i" C.
20" C.
and
be
observed
is not
his eye
if not, the
The
with
a
material
portionof
and
of the
or
ing deeply colored, accord-
more
should be
the
or
than polariscope,
should
telescope/
small
the
the
other, provided the
point. The be
vertical line
shaiply defined,
backwards
moved
and
forwards
or
sharp focus is obtained. observer the
moves
Having
weight of the
at the
set at the neutral
ocular
in 80.
of
corresponding part Peters polariscopeswill notice that
half -disks
separating the
Methods
"
trough of the instrument, suitable lamp through it.
Figs. 19, 20, 23, 27,
the type of
a
normal
of the disk is shaded
instrument
Polarlscope.
a
in the
Laurent, Fric,and
one-half to
a
with
in
instruments of the
at
observation-tube
to be
should
the
field appears the scale as directed
until
read
the
making the observation of the
turn
now
quartz-wedge compensator,
Laurent,
tinted, then
to
stillmost
one
will be -described
solutions
axis
or
prepared and
preparing the
In
made
temperature.
76.
the
be
is 16.29 instrument weight fcr the Laurent of material, which should be dissolved diluted and
grams
until
observation
tion solu-
The
normal
The
pass
20" C.
at
the material
centimeters
is to
solution,and
the
weight and the
grams
153
FOLARISCOPE.
results.
correct
secure
A
of solution
prepared and
originalnormal
used
to
centimeters
be
must
OF
instrument, and
milled
analyzer of or uniformly shaded or
the
in page 154. should be in the
the eye should not
which
screw,
be moved
optical
from
side
side. A
little
practicewill
enable
the
operator
to
detect
very
tint and or depth of the shadow in this manipulation. to attain great accuracy The polariscope is as manipulation of the triple-field described above, except that the field is in three sections,
slight differences
in the
in shading it uniformly. giving greater facility The double compensating polariscopesare providedwith
164
OPTICAL
METHODS
IN
SUGAR
two
scales,in the older instruments,
and
the other
the red scale is set at
work
the black
with
Since
red
the
and
screw
the
abandonment
check
readingsshould To
make
equalized
of their ivory scales on account certain atmospheric conditions,metal marked
are
to
indicate
whether
at
the the
the
direct
the
scale,the
same
instruments
Laurent
dark-colored
time
same
the
invert
and
single-
readings
graduationsextending
This
solutions.
with
fitted
are
small
a
A
in
both
device
for
varying
polarizingvery
in
slightchange or
a
angle, thus
is convenient
adjusting lever will increase
lightthat
With
zero.
sensitiveness.
the
readingsshould
algebraicsign minus.
rotatingthe polarizerthrough the
readings. Both
The
scale used.
other
instruments
compensating sides of the
used
screw
ize equal-
or reading,i.e.,one with a Isevorotatory the black, or right-hand, scale should be
with
on
for invert
and
invert
and
be recorded
The
the
sugar,
zero
made
the observation-tube
agree.
an
left-hand
of
the field is
and
zero
nary ordi-
For
one.
of
the scale,remove
the field with
are
by the brass
operated
right or left readings.
To
set
scale is
black
screw.
length changing with scales are usuallyused, and for
graduated in black
one
The
frequently in red.
by the black
ANALYSIS.
the
decrease
position of the
amount
through the instrument, though at the of increasing or decreasing the sensitiveness passes
polariscope. Having equalizedthe
the
described, the the
scale is to
scale is best
shown
field of the read.
be
by
an
polariscope as The
method
example.
Let
of the
already reading position
.11 i 1 11
Fio.
of the
scale and
of the vernier lower
number
vernier
is between and
note
be
28.
shown
in
The Fig. 28. zero 30 and 31 of the scale; record the line on the point at which the a as
156
OPTICAL
It is
METHODS
quite essential the
to
respect
light should
be
suitable
Landolt
of
that
as
by
to it
has
should
Bunsen
the
for monochromatic
light,and
provide
to
Laurent
Laurent
of
type
gas-sodium,
eo'ipyle,the requirea flame
Laurent
lamps
last such
yellow color is imparted
the
sodium
chloride.
M.
soduim
salts for
finds that
sodium
various
experimented with
changed, the i
the
the
are
These
fused
if
factoryconditions
burner, and
with
contact
The
light for
gas-sodium, and
a
light with intensity of the
be verified.
the usual
burning alcohol.
named
position of the
possible,and
lamps used
The
ANALYSIS.
fixed.
as
monochromatic
instruments. the
the
constant
as
It is difficult under a
that
SUGAR
polariscope be
reading observation
zero
IN
F.
*
Dupont in
use
lamps
chloride
and
fused together in molecular phosphate of sodium proportions give results in every way superiorto those with sodium chloride only. The of the scale Polariscope. 78. Adjustment tribasic
"
only part liable to get out of adjustment. this adjustment, place a polariscope tube is the
of the instrument To filled with
test
in the
water
trough of the instrument observation
This
an
observation.
the
tube, but
the
adjustment
with
the
water.
made the
as
reading
The
vernier with
but
by
by
used
of
means
distance.
short water
scale
and
scale is
for all of their
in the
vernier
without
readily
so
properly adjusted
a
"
Haensch
compensating
other
key,
makers.
A
The
coincide
micrometer-
is
observation-tube, and until the
with
another.
one
the
zero
ments instru-
polariscopes
arranged to field is equalized
by the micrometer-screw
moved
do
a
If the
is not
zero
adjusting the Schmidt
same
turned
screw,
the
on
made
make
zero.
is similar to that
and
and
of
method is the
now
be
should
be
may
and
the
move
usual,
as
vernier
lines of the The
scale
through several degrees by the milled the field is again equalized as before,and if the zero moved
not
coincide
manipulations successive
^Bulletia
the are
vernier
be
is to
again adjusted.
repeated until the
observations.
de 1'Association
These
des
zeros
is
coincide
adjustments
ChimiBtes, 14, 1041.
screw
lines These
in are
is
eral sev-
very
I ADJUSTMENT
fatiguingto
the
OF
which
eye,
1^7
POLARI8COPE.
A
should
rested
be
short time
a
making the final observations. Certain compensating polariscopes, of the older especially models, are exceedinglysensitive to changes in the position of light. It is advisable to follow or intensityof the source directions as to the positionof the lamp with the maker's regard to the instrument and arrange the latter so that it be jarred out of place. The distance of the lamp cannot from the instrument is usually 15 to 20 cm. The position the lamp should occupy should also be marked, that it may be properly replaced after refilling, and the intensityof the light should not be changed after adjustingthe instrument until the observation A change in the has been made. position or intensityof the light,with certain instruments, before
will sometimes In
adjusting the
of 0.5"
error
an
is next
focused
field into halves; the of the
means
zeros
the
zero,
to
are
The
G.
screw
more.
the upper limit,the ocular vertical line which divides the
the
on
or
polariscopesto read
Laurent
U, Figs.25, 26, is lifted
lever O
cause
made
now
field should
now
coincide
to
be
by uniformly
adjustment,and if not uniform, The adjustment should be F. equalize it with the screw factory. tested as with the other instruments, and repeateduntil satisshaded, ifthe instrument
is in
It is advisable to have
for checking quartz control-plates
of the adjustment of the instrument and the correctness scale. Standardized platesof the highest accuracy may be obtained from the makers and in use take of polariscopes, solution and a standard the place of the observation-tube of pure sucrose. One plate should read approximately96" the
and
a
second
in the most
about
these
60", as
parts of the scale control-tube
scale may be tested with a Schmidt " Haenschi and shown in control-tube
is filled with
flows into the tube screw.
The
as
it is
Fig. 29. a
sugar
The
of the
Applied Chemistry
by
funnel
T
lengthened by turning the milled
tube
committee
made
solution, which
length is read on the scale N. describes this apparatus. sufiiciently The
used
important polarizations.
The
of the
are
Fourth
also recommends
The
tration illus-
International Congress of the
use
of pure
cane-
168
Bugftr for
IN
METHODa
OPTICAL
ANALYSIS.
BUGAB
The
testing the polariacope.
of
method
preparing
this sugar and precautions in using it are described in 393. The micromeler-acrew at H, Figa. 19, 20, 23, 27, is for the
adjustment be
of the analyzer, should
unevenly shaded The
analyzer and be
should All
adjusted except
or
the
m
event
returned of
parts
especially the
the
at
set
the
to
of the
are
the
by
dealer
exposed
parts
Observation
shown
in Fig. 30.
repairs.
lower
the
be
*"
has
tube
(fm
feM^^^
'tmf
\J^
old linen
of
glass and
screw-eaps is
slip-cap undue
prevent
designed pressure
cover-glass. The
"Pon
the
tubes
of the French
instrument
^
have
catchea.
arranged
inside
FiQ.
and
30.
upon
hold
the
must
be made
are
used
in many
of the expansion
careful work, especially if the
spring ia
the
cap
to
cover-giaaa
it in position, without
unnecessary
observation-tubes
with
bayonet-
coiled
A
bear
Laurent
supplied
are
slip-caps that
Account
be
should
j-"
__^
Metal
dean
very
tubes
usual
slip-cap. The
Landolt
kept
wiped with
and
upper
man, work-
polariscope it
lenses; these
the
Tubes.~The The
the
to
polariscope should of
from
removed
experienced
an
for
polariacope
pomt.
be
not
accident
an
occasionallycleanaed with alcohol
79.
neutrel
polarizer should
and
instrument
the
when
the field of the
pressure.
laboratories.
of the metal
laboratory temperature
in very fluctu-
OBSERVATION
tubes
greatly. Metal
ates
handling and
careless
of silver
sometimes
are
liable to distortion
are
or
gold
plated with
are
through tubes
These
acids.
with
corrosion
to
15Q
TUBES.
to
prevent
corrosion. Tubes
of the tjrpe shown
be
Fig. 30, must illustration, the solution to be polarized. The in the
completely filled with cover-glassshould be slipped sidewise onto the tube, pushing off the surplus liquid. The glass body of the filled tube should will with the hands, since the warmth not be touched striations
cause
immediate should
observation.
be left in the
clears. Observation in
form
to
Tube
trough of the with
of
Enlarged End.
^This tube
"
upper
obviates
the
for
room
part of the
field
is shown
a
small
to
for
This
of rangement ar-
severe
this Bureau
usage,
the
overcome
prevalent defects in the theoretical design, as well suitable
the
bubble
enlargement.
order
"
tube
tube
necessity of excluding air-bubbles,
the tube. and facilitates filling Baies^ Observation Tvbe.^ "In
a
an
31.
polarized,leaving
rises to
air, which
prevent
the striations, polariscopeuntil the
the event
In
FiQ.
solution to be
liquid. These
using this tube, it is nearly filled with
In
Fig. 31.
in the
as
secure
(U. S. Bureau
wssssam
Fia.
Standards) has brought
of
in
shown carried
1
upon
Copied
ardsr
p.
Fig.
39.
from
It will be
32.
two
out
32.
the
observed
shoulders, which
Circular
No.
44,
"
new
are
Polarimetry,"
Bates that
type of tube the
weight is
integral parts of the U.
S. Bureau
of Stand'
160
OPTICAL
and
tube
not
METHODS
IN
ANALYSIS.
thereby eliminatingall danger
the caps,
upon
SUGAR
The turning while in the trough of the instrument. bore is 9 mm., permitting the utilization of the full aperture of the polarizingsystem. This also reduces to a minimum the light depolarized by reflection from the walls of the tube. from
The a
field of the instrument
thus
bright, sharply defined
and
the
ends
are
circle with
Both
accuracy.
advantages, yet
33.
size of
is required. The cover-glass and washer unusually heavy, eliminating all danger from
one
walls
as
overlying haziness,
no
reading can be made with increased enlarged with all the attendant
Fig.
but
for the first time
appears
are
bending." Observation
Fig.
33
Tube
is very
with
Side
convenient
Tvbvle.
in
The
"
rarely be removed. the risk of error by compression
Fia.
tubes
The
should
be
in
general sugar-analysis. The
cover-glasses need reduces
shown
tube
This of the
arrangement
cover-glasses.
34.
frequently cleaned
with
diluted
acetic
acid. Tube,
Pellet's Continuous for very
of
material
raw
tube
This
tube, Fig. 34, is designed is especiallyadapted to the
rapid polarizationand
of laboratories
use
"
on
for beet-seed a
basis
is also convenient
selection
of its sucrose
in the
control
and
content.
of the
the
purchase
The
Pellet
char-filters in
sugar-refineries. The without
Pellet tube
removing
provides it from
for the
the
rapid change of solutions trough of the polariscopa.
OBSERVATION
The
is
tube
arranged that it
so
connecting rubber, tubing the syphon terminates in
by of into
the
opened.
then
solution.'
The
This
scientific
in
and used
in its
to wash
Pellet
before
short
leg which is dipped the long leg is previous
used
tions only with solupolarization and not when
desired.
be
The
be used
funnel when
arrangement is
accuracy
quantities of the solution
sary, neces-
should
the funnel. should
tube
be
period of idleness
a
The
syphon
a
hquid displaces the
same
Uberal
use
tubules.
glass tube pinch-cock on should
35 should
Fig.
the
part of
a
a
a
arrangement is
form
may
to
incoming
accuracy
illustrated
The
and
approximately the
of
be
solution
new
161
TUBES.
washed
and
with
distilled water
be
left filled with
should
water.
The
descriptions of this tube
first of the
hands
made
were
These the
author
before
experiments
construction
secure
a
were
very a
of the
tube
for immediate
tube
with
made
a
into
came
several
and
meager,
satisfactorytube
not
were
that
the
ments experi-
constructed.
was
view
to
improving
designed by Pellet, but to The tube finallyadopted
as use.
in Fig 35 and differs from Pellet's by the writer the solution to distribute design only in having four grooves is shown
instead annular each
of
The
one.
canal,
of the four
solution
funnel
which
shown
end tube the
a
of the tube to the
at
against the
FiG.
glass,and by
by
connects
grooves
is delivered
directs
displaced
inner
and
solution
waste-jar. The observation
|)revioussolution
is
end
The
of the tube.
surface
of the
canal at the flows
cover-
the field will not
opposite
through
a
So
long
bent until
be made
cannot
entirelydisplaced.
of the old solution remains
an
openings wilh
separate
the
into
36.
similar set of grooves the
solution
the
as
be clear.
any
162
METHODS
OPTICAL
The
Pellet
tube
in the
accuracy
with
IN
the
SUGAR
ANALYSIS.
funnel-inlet
analysis of
may
The
sugars.
be
funnel
used
with
should
be
shown in Fig. 35. An preferably of the form improvement to the funnel would be an overflow attachment solution. to facilitate the washing with the new The author has proposed substituting a grooved tube, such as a rifle-barrel, The swirlingmotion for the plain tube. would imparted to the solution by the rifling probably promote the removal of the previous solution, especially in
small
and
Experiments made
testing sugars.
FiG.
FiQ.
with
vided
a
with
a
Pellet
tube, pro-
38.
37.
glassbody, indicated
the
of desirability
the
grooves.
Tube; Wiley^s Modification, ^This tube. Fig. 36, is arranged for the control of the temperature of the solution under observation, especiallyin the Clerget LandoWs
Irwersion
method. double-polarization
"
The
glass observation
tube
is
is circulated jacket through which water while polarizing. A side tubule, enlarged to funnel shape, the tube and in taking the temis provided for use in filling perature A solution. of the centigrade thermometer ^aduenclosed
ated
to
Wiley
in
a
metal
fifths of devised
a
degree should be used. the desiccator-caps shown
in
Fig.
37
to
164
OPTICAL
METHODS
IN
SUGAR
given only approximatelyon
be
in the
materials
themselves
ANALYSIS.
account in the
and
of the
variations
illumination
of the
polariscope. In general the minimum quantity of the leadsalt that will yield a clear and sufficiently tion light-coloredsolushould
be
used. into
errors
refer to cubic per
sirup,7 control),5 to 10 80
cc; 6
analysis. The of the lead
introduces
cc; raw
solution
of 54.3?
98"
6
sugar,
7
to
cc;
Brix
juice, 1.5
Raw
of 20" Brix
2 to 4 cc;
sugar,
portant im-
following numbers to
(vacuum-pan final molasses,
first molasses,7 to 10 cc;
second
89"
molasses
to 10 cc;
96"
to
of lead
use
weight of the material:
.2.5 cc;
25 to 30 cc;
the
centimeters
normal
one
Excessive
raw
1 to 2
sugar,
filter
press-cake,
often
replace the
page
179.)
cc
Home's solution
of the
salt with
1.25 100 .
cc.
of lead may
dry subacetate
of
advantagp. (See
1.5 grams juiceand a like
raw
the sugars consulted.
and
Alumina-cream of lead
of the
to
Paragraphs 83, 84, relative
upon
very
be
required
proportion for other
per
materials.
to the influence of the lead-salt
the volume
should
salt is
proximatel Ap-
of the
used
precipitatesshould
in addition
the
to
be
tate subace-
in
clarifyingthe solution in testing a sugar. The alumina-cream alone is usually sufficient in the analysis of high-grade sugars. It is
usually advisable to add a little of the lead reagent to the sugar solution,mix thoroughly, await the subsidence of the precipitateand then test the supernatant liquid with whether lead is reto ascertain a drop of the reagent more quired. An the experienced operator can readily judge by of the
precipitatewhether the lead has been used in sufficient quantity. The in reagent should be measured appearance
routine should The
always
be used
materials
weighed in
in
and
work
a
in
nickel
or
far
so
with
as
is
possiblethe
same
quantity
similar materials.
analysis
sugar
German-silver
conveniently capsule,made especially are
most
for this purpose. (Fig. 38.) The solutions do not adhere to the polished surfaces of the capsule and the shape of this
is such
that
the fiask. The
the
The
material
may
be
very
readily washed
capsules lose weight graduallythrough
counterpoiseshould
not
be filed to correct
for this
into use.
loss,
SPECIAL
the stem
but
be removed
SUGAB
165
APPARATUS.
plug should be unscrewed
or
ajod sufficietitlead
the
cavity to compensate. If the sugar-flaskhas a narrow neck, as is prescribed in careful work, it requires skill to wash other material or sugar into it. This operation is facilitated by insertingthe ste.ii of
from
German-Silver
small
a
of the flask.
into
the neck
the
neck, thus
should
be
must
left in
the
flask
reach
from the
just below
to
with
capsule and
about
"
purpose,
contact
jetof
a
the
for
should
into the flask with
be washed
room
This
keeping the sugar solution adhering to
The
latter.
funnel, made
cc.
funnel
Sufficient
water.
20
the
permit
to
"
liquida rotary motion, The flask should be held by its neck to prevent the hand time to time it should From from warming the solution. the
giving
for
be examined
below
from
to note
Fio.
remains. with should
subacetate
drops of
adhere
water
absorbed
with
preparing
the
free of
water
The
be
centimeters
and
its clarification
described, the with
mark
should
be
volume Should
water.
flas"they should
of the
either
The
funnel
The
the
be
be
used
water
distilled
in
other
or
thoroughly mixed
poured immediately
suitable of paper fluted or '^star'^ folded
flask.
above
been
to the neck
especiallyin analyzing of the
38.
of the flask should
filter should
used.
the
material
opticallyactive substances. be
be
to
solutions
shaking and be
undissolved
strips of filter-paper.The
contents
should
has
as
completed
be
whether
solution of the material
After
lead
dissolvingthe material.
and
paper
sugars,
filter should
edges of the
of the
should
ribbed
should
to receive
be
funnel.
filtrate should
and filtering-cylinder
a
never
then
filter.
The
and rapid filtrations,
for or
the
upon
by
be
so
large enough,
large
as
first few
to project
cubic
rinsing the rejected. If the
used be
should
the entire contents
The
be
funnel
in
166
filtrate should
is not
this
filter,but
the
be bright and
not
is Eilnays
preferable
requiring
considerable
filtrate until it is best
to
except
littie common tion
be
may
used.
be
pint
If
Fig.
Steniless
tin-^late or
makes
thin
a
C
and
by
a
funnels, of
so,
is
A
39.
precipiUting-jar,
the funnel
advantage
little of
a
with of
a
by refiltra-
salt and
kieselguhr
due
be
Home's
dry
to sub-
stemless a
4
inches
the
glass precipitating-jars or
funnel,
small
closer joint with
copper,
of
filteringarrangement
in
a
the
to
ia
quarterA
plain
Up-cylinder,
the edge. made
diameter,
planished,
metal
B
cyUnder.
chemists
many
except for invert solutions,than The
tempted at-
addition
followed
the
both
convenient
A
"
cylinder is preferred as
be
never
of
added.
F'OieTing Devicet. in
quantity
Occasionally the difficultymay
should
illustrated
the
The
cane.
phosphate
this,or
subacetate.
insufficient acetate
sodium
or
remedy
will often
cle"r, it
not
clear solutions
be difScult to obtain
salt
the
perfectly clear solutions.
with
products of unsound
juice and
the
filtrate does
polarization should
The
It
reject portioca of
to
If the
to
materials
other
and
sugars
returned
recommended.
be
to
solution, changing
new
a
sometimes
It may
analyzing
clear.
lead.
of
usually
be
it may
clear
accuracy
runs
prepare
subacetate
in
ANALYSIS.
SUQAB
IN
METHODS
OPTICAL
are
more
of
good
convenient,
glass. stemless
cylinders
funnels
is the
ease
and
heavy
with
which
SPECIAL
be
washed
they
may
very
convenient
and
167
APPARATUS.
SUGAR
dried.
jar and
The
cylinderare
supports for the funnels.
Sugar-flasks. ^The flasks used in sugar-work are usually They graduated to hold 50 cc. 100 cc, or multiplesof 100 cc. also graduated with two marks, viz.,50-55 cc, 100-110 are then called sugar-flasks'' by the dealers. cc, etc, and are Orders should to dealers for flasks and other precisionware in stating the system of graduation, whether be very specific It is important that all to Mohr's cc. or units,or metric cc. in the laboratory be of the same such ware tion. system of gradua"
'^
Mohr's
should
units
weight of 26.048
be
and
grams
with
used
the metric
or
the true
old cc.
normal C.
at 20"
R 110 "0
Fig.
with
the
weight of
normal
International
26
40.
for Uniform
Commission
that
grams,
adopted by
the
Methods.
glass tubing of uniform The and circular cross-section. shape of the body of bore the flask should approximate that of the diagrams in Fig. 40. A flask of this form gives little trouble from air-bubbles. necks of larger often have work for commercial Flasks Flasks
internal
should
of
S. Bureau
in
used
work.
specifiedbelow error
in the
the
S.
Customs
should
is unnecessary be adhered t9.
of the neck
capacity of flasks
of Standards:
U.
This
internal diameters
following maximum the U.
from
those
in research
or
diameters
of tolerance
made
than
diameter
laboratories the
be
are
and
and The limits
specifiedby
168
OPTICAL
small
such
of
of
is
writer
all calibration,
and
flasks
of
hundred
several
flasks chased purfor the laboratories under the
bearing the maker's
well within
were
ANALYSIS.
apparently large for
prominent dealer
of the
SUGAR
Of
diameter.
neck a
direction
IN
of tolerance
limit
Tbis
METHODS
the tolerance
certificate limits
given
in the table. The
specifiedfor use in the U. S. Custom These have a height laboratories are like B of Fig. 40. in length and its internal The neck is 70 mm. mm. 100
House of 130
diameter 12.6 30
mm.
flasks
cc.
The
mm.
from
less than
be not
must
11.6
graduation marks
the upper
end
and
and
mm.
shall be
16
not
than
more
less
not
than
fyom the lower end
mm.
of the neck. The
flasks shown
in
in
Fig. 40 all conform
shape of the body the U. S. Customs tions. regulaThey should be distinctly
with
jnarked the
with
system
"Contains
true
capacity and graduation, e.g.,
of 100
for the Mohr 100
their
cc,
flask and
20** C."
cc,
C* 17.6/17.5"
for the metric
cubic-centimeter
graduation-mark encircle
"Contains
flasks. should
the
neck
or
The pletely com-
of
the
flask. Pellet's conical are
of
rubber bottom Fig.
41.
facilitates the escape
flasks.Fig. 41, strong glass and have a to tfie cover sUp over and a ring for the neck
to reduce
breakage. Their form gives them great stabilityand
of air-bubbles.
^
SIECIAL
SUGAR
Referringto Fig. 40, the fill most
of
The
the
169
APPARATUS.
and
flasks A
requirements of
Stift (C) and
of various capacities
B the
Kohlrausch
oratory. sugar-house lab-
(D) flasks
used
are
in the
analysis of Alter press-cake. The flask C if narrow the graduation may be used in all classes of work. The
flasks should
at
be
frequently and thoroughly cleaned. * C. A. Browne recommends solution cleaning with a warm of sodium hydroxide and Bochelle salts,such as is used in the film of lead preparing Fehling's solution. This removes '
that
carbonate commercial
the walls of the flask.
deposits upon acid is
muriatic
Strong cleaning in nitric acid, followed
used
usually
for this
Treatment with sugar-house laboratories. by washing and then a strong solution of chromic acid in concentrated sulphuric acid,is good preparation of flasks for calibration.
It is advisable
to
the chromic
use
acid
solution
the frequently in cleansing flasks. After this treatment drops of water will drain from the neck of the flask properly instead of adhering to it. Calibration of Sugar-flasks. No flask should be used in "
important capacity.
work
without
There
is much
confusion
the true
and.Mohr's
between
being sometimes
system to
having first verified its marked
marked
the
on
cc,
part of
having been
as
facturers manu-
flasks of the
one
graduated
the other. Cleanse
the
flask
dry it in moisture return
The errors
has
an
has
as
On
oven.
condensed
the flask to the
balance
hand
be
walls
and
case,
counterpoising. Remove counterpoise the weight on
Cool but
the do
not
flask
Fill the flask to the mark
""
Hai^book
so
to
the
the
This
with
left-
be used
the balance
right-hand pan
flask.
perature tem-
room
wipe it again, and
the flask from
for the
flask to the limits of
1
if
eliminate
to
accurately counterpoise it, placing it upon balance-pan. Pieces of metal or weights may
weights substituted
oughly thor-
whether
note
substitution
by
itself.
in
the
inside
the
and
oven.
in the balance then
above
cooling the flask
upon
weighing should of the
described
been
and
accurate
gives the weight of of the analyticalweights. accuracy with recently boiled distilled water
of Sugar
Analysis,"
p.
171.
170
of
METHODS
OPTICAL
running
the
wetting
the
neck
the flask,with
of
neck.
Remove
of the
flask by
with
the
graduation
part
of
Place
the
the
odd
level
filled flask
and
the
upon
pieces the
note
and
of
is
the
Our
the
to
100
Mohr's
to
The
and
of 100
the
hne
neck
lower
with of
means
the small
a
before
as
weights.
or
the
of
and
Remove with
water
an
42.
weight
weight whether
cc.
the
correction
99.958
shows
at 20"
to
the
of
the
metal that
as
the
with
the
of the
flask
flask
balance
C, hence
to
of
water
be
the
gives the
ie in prop"
at
20"
of
C.
and
452
Mobr
to
or
For at
20"
apparent
453,
to
the
example: C.
Refei^
weight
of
the flask is correctly graduated
Similarly using the table
pages
temperatures.
grams this
tables,
(according
cc.
various
at
table
this system.
water
had
weight
flask contains
ence
metal
this
the
water
now
table)
cc.
ing fill-
not.
or
Reference
true
record
of the
weight
showing
by
Counterpoise the
Deducting
adjustment
in
the
of the If
balance-pan
temperature
thennometer.
water.
correct
is not water
Verify
eye.
the
to
bring it into line.
analytical weights and
the
in
is possible
as
part
upper
of
remove
Fis.
accurate
the
meniscu?
or
count"rpoiBe it with
fla^
the
at
of
it by
used
adhere
may
roll of filter-paper.
a
be
far
bo
that
water
holding
curve
graduation-mark, pipette and
ANALTBIB.
into the flaak to avoid
water
the
SDOAB
large pipette should
A
temperature.
room
the
IN
corrections
same
for
i3+0.282, which
flask and true
cc.
added
weight at to
20"
of C.
99.95S
172
OPTICAL
shown
in F^.
Fig. 43, b
a
the
same
In
the
balance
Two be
is suitable.
quantity,
for
'weights,
One
set
of
verifying and
The
balances
with
a
should
at
importance than weights The
bulhon
venient
capacity balance it from
several
for
speed
and
should dust
be
and
is
a
to
currents
That
suitable
half
should
sensitive
within
2
in
of air. of size.
5
other
pan.
in
kept
the
others.
milligrams materials
of sugar
usually sufficiently through
weighing
in Fig. 44
weighings are
in
are
ation evapor-
of
more
This
hood
instrument
kilograms, It should
is very which
eon-
large
essentials.
glass-framed
a
back
milligrams.
shown
rough
sugar.
the
be
two
to
are
in alow
a
normal, should
weight of
the
manipulation
placed
capacities.
milligrams,
of
and
the
be introduced
may
so-called
in
milligrams
of balance
type the
2
of moisture
absorption
or
gram
of at
pan
though weights
that
errors
weight
weights
least be
for polarization,to within The
normal
checking
full load in the pans,
accurate.
1
in
rapid weighings
in the
grams
these
balance, shown
for very
normal
counterpoiee
of sugar
provided.
reserve
the
e.g.
ANALYSIS.
decimal
type
illustrated,10
instrument
sets
The
convenient
very
o(
of the '
43
S^QAB
IN
METHODS
to
protect
is made
sensitive
have
This
to
in 100
agate bearings
HEATING
and
knife
use
in
bagasse analysis and and
Washr-hoUles, solution bottles
for on
should
This scale is suitable for
edges for tropicalwork.
of massecuites
have
determining the degree Brix
in
molasses.
Stock-bottles.
in sugar shelf above
The
"
work-table.
the
glass syphon-tube with
a
and
water
analysis,should
use
a
173
DEVICES.
the
lead
be
kept in large
The
water-bottle
rubber
connections, a
glass-nozzle,forming a convenient ment arrangeing for washing samples into the sugar-flaskand for dilutthe solutions to the graduations on the necks of the flasks. This is a very satisfactoryform of wash-bottle, and several about the laboratory. The of these should be distributed
pinch-cock and
lead
subacetate
bottle
should
be connected
with
reservoir-
a
FiG. 45. ,
The
burette.
burette
has
a
three-way cock,
connecting with the stock-bottle and
rubber
a
tube.
The
by
means
air-inlet to the
of
a
one
opening
glasssyphon
subacetate-of-lead
ing containprovided with a small wash-bottle caustic soda solution,to absorb the carbonic acid and prevent
should
bottle
be
precipitationof the lead. since
a
small
is not precipitation
large stock-bottles should he employed.
very
lead -subacetate
Where
This
are
used
solution
is not
strictlynecessary, objectionable,but where the washing arrangement
is used
in
storing samples
containing the concentrated should also be provided. of
juice a
stock-bottle
hot-plate is the heating device for laboratories having
Heating
Devices.
"
The
solution
electric
most a
venient con-
24-hours
w
174
OPTICAL
METHODS
electricservice. Where
IN
SUGAR
ANALYSIS.
the generatorsare
only operatedat
night the hot-platesmust be supplemented by stoves. The Norma alcohol stove Fig. 45 is satisf^^ctory for heating in etc. extractions, inversions, Notes 82. The on Polariscopic Manipulations. should not bear heavily of the observation-tubes screw-caps the cover-glasses,since glass is double-refracting upon does not quickly recover under these conditions and its condition. normal A largeerror be introduced through may excessive pressure the glasses. The cover-glasses should on be of the best qualityof glass, perfectlyclean and with parallel sides. A glassmay be tested with regard to the parallelism of its surfaces by holding it in front of a window and looking through it at a window-bar; on revolving the glassslowly if the bar appears between the thumb and a finger, to move and the should be the surfaces are not parallel glass rejected. become Old glasses which have scratched should slightly "
.
not
be
used.
frequentlywashed
Glasses
and
observation-tubes
should
be
with acetic acid.
should planes of the ends of the observation-tubes This may be tested be perpendicularto the axis of the tube. by placing a tube filled with a sugar solution in the trough of the polariscopeand making an observation; on revolving the tube in the trough, and making observations at different should the readings vary, the ends of the tube positions, have not been properlyground. The manufacturers of polariscopesand their accessories in their methods that faulty have attained such accuracy apparatus rarely leaves their workshops, nevertheless the scales and accessories should be checked to verifygraduations, and tube length. The polariscopeshould be used in a well-ventilated room. It should be protected from the heat of the lamp and, so A confrom light from other sources. far as practicable, venient in 'a box, arrangement is to place the instrument The end lamp is placed outside the leaving one open. box, oppositethe open end, and lightsthe instrument through In making a reading,the observer stands a small opening. end of the box, his body cutting off the greater at the open light. The inside of the box should part of the extraneous The
VOLUME
painted black.
be the
bottom
THE
OP
LEAD
175
PBECIPITATB.
should polariseope
The
of the box
table,so
or
that
be
fastened to
it may
readily
not
jarred out of position.
be
The
illumination the
light from
scale
polariscopelamp
models
of instruments.
in the
absence
by
the
of
is effected
by
reflecting
it,except in the old A small electric lamp should be used
of reflectors.
upon
The
current
may
be
supplied by dry-batteriesand should be bell push-button. A gas-jetor candle should
a
for this
used
lightingon
of
account
iently conven-
controlled be
never
overheating the scale
or
damaging the polariscope. The
the
settingof
zero
polariscopescale
verified,using standardized bichromate
filter-cell(see page
this verification
and
plates. The always be used in
must
removed
from
of the dark
account
quently fre-
the
In
fact this
polariscope
color of the solution
tested.
Influence
83.
be
be
quartz
adjusting the vernier.
in
ray-filtershould never or on except for refilling to be
145)
should
Volume
of the
of the
Lead
tate. Precipi-
precipitateintroduces errors into the polariof which are probably offset by compensoopicanalysis,some sating notably in the analysisof low-grade products. errors, The error due to the volume occupied by the precipitatewill be considered in this paragraph, and those due to influence of ^The lead
"
lead
the
will be
the
upon
discussed
It is evident
occupied by
farther
that
if
so
high.
This
part of the volume
a
bodies
on.
solid, and
there
be
of the flask be
compensation
no
for the
polariscopicreading will be too has been studied by numerous chemists,
matter
especiallyin
more
opticallyactive
other
occupied, the
volume
but
a
and
sugars
connection
with
the
beet-sugarand
refiningindustries. and others noticed by Rafe and Pellet,Commerson, It was that in low-grade products, the saline coeflficientof which is of the high, there is apparently no error due to the volume laige precipitate.They attributed this fact to an absorption of
From is
at the by the precipitate
sucrose
no
concluded
experiAientsSachs*
numerous
absorption of
sucrose,
and
attributed
Universelle
de la Fabrication
the
there
results with
'"'"""
"
Revue
that .
"
1
of its formation.
moment
da
Sucre, 1. 451.
176
OPTICAL
METHODS
low
products
and
sodium
the
to
formed
This
sucrose.
view
ANALYSIS.
of the
with
acetic
the
is strengthened in the
juices,due
of
acetates
acid
the
salt, upon
perceptible error,
very
SUGAR
influence
lead
of the
IN
from
rotatory
potassium
the
position decomof the
power
by the fact that there is a
of polarization
both
beet
and
the
precipitate. In the precipitation of the impuritiespf juicesbut little of these acetates is
sugar-cane
to
with
formed, whereas
low
products the quantity is laige. Sachs's made experiments were tration by increasingthe concenof the solution instead of by dilution as practiced The following data are from Sachs's paper: by Scheibler. *
dissolved
He
x
in water,
sufficient
added
lead salt for clarification, completed the volume
af the
solution
100
to
increases frpm Since
of molasses
grams
the.
volume
ratio.
same
The quantity polarized as usual. experiment to experiment by equal increments. and
cc,
quantity of
the
of the
of the
An
if this
nere.the
volume
of the
molasses
is increased
with
in the
ment experi-
increase
precipitate must
increase
each
volume
of the
x
in the
precipitate,
should incf^9ase only dist^urbinginfljiejace, is due to the sugar, since the than the, polarization, mpre
solution is decreased. .
Letting ajF=the weight of molasses, and 2/=the polariscopic
reading,the
ratio "
if there
is
an
error,
compensated
by
should
-
increase
to
other
the volume
substitutingthe
values
1st Series *'
2d
the
errors
of thb In
a
x
and
y
in the
not precipitate,
used
grams
1.900
1.900
2.14
2.13
2.14
following numbers
1st
Series.
quantities
in 100
and
cc,
ratio and
reducing
1.906
1.896
2.14
that minus
of the ratio shows
for that
due
to
volume
the
beet-juicesSachs
obtained
:
0.5446
0.5474
0.5800
0.5836 !
.
"^ Revue
35
1.906
precipitate. similar experiment with
''
concentration,
followingfigures:
the
2d
of
Sachs
5 to
value practicallyconstant have fully compensated
The
of the
influences.
ranging from
obtained
the
I
due
of beet-molasses
he
with
X
UniverBelle
""
'
I
...I.
0.5480
.
de la Fabrication
0.5842 "
du Sucre, 1, 451.
0.5497 0.5860 ,1
.(i
,
"
The an
VOLUME
OF
increase
in the
due
error
sufficient
not
results
by the
similar
unpublished analyses the
at
Juice
writer's
25 gr. :1
1st Series "
2d Series
No.
2
is
that
dividing the
precipitate and
there
is
Cuba
with
of Sachs, and
several
series of R.
L.
by
Cook,
following results:
the
50 gr. :2
cc.
cane-molasses
75
ck.
gr. :3
100
cc.
gr. :4 cc.
0.628
0.632
0.633
0.628
0.630
0.633
0.634
times
weight
in
normal
the
of 0.13
error
in the
error
2d
The
1. 100
polarization of
cc.
4
100
and
cc.
16.49, shomng
was
of
cent
per
16.36, and
was
weight in
polariseope reading by
uncompensated
it.
correct
0.628
uncompensated
an
is
duplicate of No.
a
using lour
in
gave
juice using the normal
the
there
cane-juices made
instance,
lead
and
of
that
to
error
those
to
juices shows
of the
author
177
PREOIPITATB.
ratio with
compensating
Experiments gave
LEAD
volume
tha
to
THE
The
sucrose.
Series, ttsingthe
juice,
same
0.15*^
was
In
experiments by Cook, in the first and the polarization was inunediate in the second
of which after Juice
1st
series of
other
two
forty hours,
lead. .20 gr. :1
and
Series..... "
2d As
in the
of Cook
results
the
cc.
40
gr. :2
flask.
Wash
add
0.692
0.693
0.694
of Sachs's
experiments with beets, this work is
there
that
the
of
and
dilute
the
as
Revue
determining
cc.
tall
of
ume vol-
the
juice with
sub.
cylinder instead
water, until
precipitateto
the
weight of solution
all of a
ICO-cc.
100
cc,
observation-tube.
a
cold
sucrose
flask and
dissolve
cane-sugar,
to
the
of
the
mix, filter,and The
results
are
follows: "
'"'""'"'
hot
400-mm.
a
a
precipitate.
of the
precipitate by decantation, first with
normal
^
volume
the
usual, using
Transfer
polarize,using t^'mim^^^^'^^
as
the
calculated
to
in the
perceptible error
very
a
following method
one-half
sugar,
:5 cc"
gr.
0.690
finally with
is removed.
cc.lOO
0.687
the
and
water
gr. :4
0.696
of lead
acetate
80
0.694
precipitate: Clarify 100
of the
cc.
0.690(?)
case
used
CO gr. :3
0.691
analysis of cane-juices due ^
cc.
follows:
as
0.690
shows
Sachs
were
"
Universelle
"
.
"
de
.^----1
I
'
"""""".
la Fabrication
du
Sucre,
1, 451.
178
OPTICAL
Let
IN
METHODS
P""per
of
cent
BUGAB
in the
sucrose
ANALYSIS.
sugar;
P^"the
X
polarizationof the solution,made of the precipitate; presence of the lead precipitate. ="the volume
,-i50^ziOOP
"
Then
Let
Example:
P="
99.9;
P'"
100.77.
^^(100X100.77)-(100X99.
Vh^r. Then
X
^^^j;^
followingis
The for the
the
of the
"Scheibler's double-dilution
termed
9) ^. ^ ^-0.86cc. ^^
of Scheibler
method
due to the volume
error
in the
up
^
ior
correcting
predpitate^and usually method":
To
100
cc.
of juice add the requisite quantity of sobacetate lead for the clarification, to. 110 cc. of complete the volume of
the
and
polarize as
juiceadd lead polarize. Calculation subtract
as
:
by
reading. The calculation
to
Multiplythe 2.2
and
portion of 100
per
cc,
of and
polariscopereading by 2, first reading,multiply the
the
product from the first required reading for the
this
is the
cent
to 220
cC:
second
deduct
remainder
of the
second
a
before, complete the volume
product from
the
remainder
usual;
sucrose:
Example, Degree Brix of the juices First polariscope reading (110 cc.) '*
Second
2X28.7"57.4; 300
we
(220 cc.)....
have:
15.18 .03 .02 15.23 ^
67.6 28.7
57.6-0.44 2.2X0.2=0.44; polariscope reading. By Schmitz table,
67.6-67.4-0.2;
"57.16=corrected page
''
18 .0
=
required per
Zeit. RUbenzucker-Industrie,
cent. 25, 1054.
1
80
caused
by excessive of 0,5
excess
2
cc.
of 0.11" and 3
scale. excess
with 6
cc.
of
1
cc.
in
reaches
and continues
excess
added.
of lead solution
returns
A
to
0.12**;
the cane-sugar value when an
the initial value
to increase with
sugar
of
cc.
An
on
minimum
a
is present and
co.
0.1**;1
of
diminution of 0.90"
a
rotation
The
diminution
a
of lead.
of subacetate
amounts
causes
cc.
ANALYSIS.
SUGAR
IN
METHODS
OPTICAL
the amount
polarizing99.9"
used
was
experiments.
in these
followingobservations relative to constant the influence of certain inorganic salts: "With chlorides of barium, strontium, relation of sugar to water, the decrease in the and calcium cause a rotation,which continues to decrease as the salt is increased; calcium chloride causes a
made
^
Famsteiner
decrease, but
addition
the
the salt reaches
when
whieh
increase
an
causes
a
maximum
further
finallyexceeds
that
of
sohition. the pure-sugar "If the relation of the sugar to that of the salt be kept in all constant, it is found that the addition of water causes cases
the
specificrotatory power, i.e.,the The specific rotatory power unaffected by varying the quantity of sugar with
of the salts is lessened.
action
is almost a
in
increase
an
lithium, sodium, and
of
'^
examination
An
the salt and
relation between
constant
The
water.
potassium behave
of the action of the
in
a
chlorides
similar
ner. man-
quantitiesof different salts shows that in the ease of strontium, calcium, and magnesium the depression varies inversely with the molecular weight,and that the product of the two quantities chloride does not act Barium is approximately a constant. in the
same
relation, however,
similar relation.
The
within each
of chlorides and
The
group
rotatory
to
as
much
In his
1
power
modified
potassiumeven
and
Berichte
not
alkalis show
only holds
for two
salts
a
good
belonging
groups."
solution is not
[_
but the clilorides of the
manner,
to different
same
as
of
by
when
sucrose
in
the presence
iSO per cent
chem.
in
or
alcohol
of nitrates of sodium
the
quantity of the nitrate amounts of the sucrose (E. Gravier).
of the influence investigation deut.
water
Gesell.
of the lead
23, 3570; Journ.
Chem.
precipitate,
Soc, 60, 283.
1 INFLUENCE
*
SUB
OF
ACETATE
OF
181
LEAD.
that the presence of acetate of potassium very the rotation. The diminution was perceptiblydiminished Sachs
found
also noticeable
with
sulphatesof potassium
the
salts. corresponding sodium also states of Sachs that citrate of potassium, carbonate sodium, and several other salts have an influence analogous not
was
of the
use
of tannic
Sachs
further
solutions decolorizing
of the volume
of the
that
states
is very
tionable objec-
precipitateformed
lead.
the
with
of free acetic acid
presence
in part.
acid in
account
on
the
The
acetates.
this influence
reduces the
marked
so
that
to
with
lead,but
and
^The rotatory power of dextrose is not modified, if at all, but very slightly, by either the subacetate oi
Dextrose. or,
"
lead, under See also Invert-sugar. neutral
The
I.evulose. "
diminished
by
added
acid
of
acetate
of levulose
rotatory power
the
presence
of subacetate
acidity restores
to
analyticalconditions
the
the
is very of lead.
rotation
precipitated
a
lead salt in the presence
Acetic levulose
of the
(Gillin 1871, Spencer in 1885, Pellet). Levulose as
greatly
is
of certain
partly
chlorides,
quantitiesgreater or less,according to the relative pro* portions of the salts,lead, and levulose (Pellet,Edson). of lead precipitateslevulose in part, when Basic acetate in
salts
in the
occur
basic acetate
same
solution with
of lead forms
constituents
of which
insoluble combinations
(Prinsen-
GJeerligs). Invert-sugar Dextrose^ and
Levulose.
In
"
the
J
the
salts formed
in the
decompositionof
the
lead, dextrose, and levulose are The influence of the basic lead salt Edson).
presence
subacetate
precipitatedin part
of levulose (seeLevulose)
is not
dextrose, which
Increasingamounts
affected
of subacetate
the left solutions decrease sugar rotation is to the righton account
C. the
H.
Gill called
Chemical
^
Revue
attention
to
of that
dc la Fabrication
in the
du
to
invert-
finallythe
of the in the
error
to the
plus error.
a
added
rotation,and
Society,April, 1871, and Universdle
prominence
of lead
this
(Pellet,
of levu'osate
results in
and
of
the rotatory
on
the formation
or power little lead of of opticalactivitygivesundue
of
dextrose. Journal
of
early editions
Sucre. 1, 151.
182
OPTICAL
METHODS
of this book, the the
restore
Acetic
author
rotatory
hydrochloric
acetate
and
sodic Wm.
and
acids
with
warming
rotation
the
Malic acid
is
the
effect.
rotation
Sodic
(H. A.
Sulphuric and hydrochloric
rotation; oxalic acid has
effect.
no
The
the
as
its
^This acid is Isevorotatory. The
"
Malic
opticallyinactive.
is
acid
requires
artificial malic
precipitated by
of lead.
Pjrapectine.
and
Pectine
"
and the
to
of invert-
power
opposite
an
increase
to corresponding
acid.
subacetate
and
rotatory
dilution, which twenty-four hours' (Gube *).
about
acid
quantity of the mineral acid is the invert-sugar solution be diluted after hydrochloricacid, it does not quickly reach
If
increased.
has
McPhersons).
increases
rotation
of a"etic
use
levulose.
the
chloride
the
increase
acid
ANALYSIS.
the
of th"
slightlylowers
acid
SUGAR
advised
power
sugar;
Weber
IN
by normal
second
Not
Asparagine. "
substances
lead salt.
precipitableby solution
In water
and
rotatory dextroof
leadt
of lead.
acetate
dextrorotatory instead
is rendered
are
precipitated by subacetate
both
are
^These
lead, but Isevorotatoryby the
subacetate of
of
alkaline solution
asparagine is laevorotatory;in acid solution,dextrorotatory.* Asparagine is insoluble in alcohol,and in the presence of acetic acid is inactive.*
Isevorotatory; in
is
in the with
and
additional
presence
it is
mineral
of acetic acid the of the
acid
asparagine
tory; acid, dextrorota-
rotation becomes
is diminished
0", and
with
dextrorotatory (Degener). Asparagine
in
salt is found
lime
a
solution
from
immature
cane;
aspartic acid by the action of lime, and
to
Aspartic Acid. the
of
that cane-jiiice, especially
changed
lime
is
acid
alkaline
and
presence
molecules
10
is present in
a
neutral
In
as
molasses.*
asparagine by the action of lime; In alkaline solutions,aspartates salt is soluble. From
"
solutions in acid laevorotatory and dextrorotatory. Aspartic acid is precipitatedby subacetate of lead.
are
Chimistes
Aaaoc
"
Bulletin
2
Optical Rotation
of
de
Organic
France, 3, 131. Substances,
Landolt
Dr. Long's "ng.
"
ed., 541. "
Champion
"
W.
and
Maxwell,
Pellet, Compt. Bui.
38, 2d
Rend.^ 83, 819.
Series, La. Expt. Station,
p.
1380.
183
ERROR.
BONE-BLACK
Error. Bone-black Bone-black absorbent action on an sugars.
85.
"
anknal
or
exercises
it is desirable to
avoid
using it
possible. It is advised quantitiesranging from black
half-normal
the
to
solution;
advise
others
solution
For
qharcoal
this
reason
in
analyticalwork whenever by different experimenters to add of powdered, dry bone1 to 3 grams weight of material in 100 cc. of filtration of 50
the
small
of the
cc.
bone-black
of
sugar
the through quantity and then the filtration of sufficient rejectionof the filtrate, a
and
for the observation. In
experiments the writer adopted the following method: Place a small quantity of bone-black, about 3 grams, in a small plain filter, rather slow filtering-paper. a selecting Add volume of the solution equal to that of the char or a just completely moisten the latter,and let this liquid filter recent
off.
After
which
be
five similar
or
rejected,test
are
and
four
the
as
tion observapolariscopic
a
reading varies. Solutions must evaporation during the filtration. So
protected from
soon
filtrates by
the
whether
note
the filtratesfrom filtrations,
the
reading is constant, showing
record
it
the
further
no
number.
tion, absorp-
is required tedious,but apparently gives very satisfactory results very when the coloring matter is not difficult to remove. If the color persistsobstinately, it is preferable to filter the 8olu" tion through the bone-black and reject thf first half of the filtrate.
The
as
of the
use
This
.method
nitrogenfilled concent|*atedfilament
Mazda
in polarizingwill usually enable electric-lamp dispensewith animal charcoal.
"
86.
Influence
The
compensating type
readings The was
the
at
17.5" C 1898
adopted 20" C.
of
temperature
standard
former
about
of Temperature
and
temperature
it for
only give correct
to this standard.
Commission
for Uniform
26
the normal
as
Methods
weight
standardized.,
was
these
usually all the instruments
conformed
grams
which
to
Polarizations*
upop
polariscopecan at
one
instruments
made
In oi
and
1897
pijor to the International
Sugar Analysis 100
true
cc.
at
the
The instrument makers corresponding volume. with this specification. have conformed The rotation due to the quartz wedges increases with rise as
of temperature
and
that of
sucrose
decreases.
Dr.
H.
W.
184
METHODS
OPTICAL
Wiley called the the
to
and
into
prepared
SUGAR
ANALYSIS.
of the IT. S. Treasury
attention
introduced
errors
conditions
IN
polarizationsby these
sugar
A. Browne
made
*
The
table of corrections.
a
in raw-sugar
applies a temperature correction based upon Wiley's observations. Charles
Department
a
ury Treas-
testing
full study of the influence
very
in the
and cluded conpolarizationof raw-sugars that it is impossible to devise a simple reliable method In view of this conclusion, of corrections for cane-sugars. he has equipped his laboratory (New York Sugar Trade in which all Laboratory) with constant temperature rooms solutions are prepared and polarized at 20" C. This sugar
of temperature
obviates
arrangement Brown
questionof
?*[!-0.0003 (t- 20)], formula, P^" is the corrected polarization,P*, the observed
P*"
=
polarization,and t the temperature serious error be applied without 96** and
above
Few, if
any
of the
Neither
of lower
polarization. equipped for polarizations
sugars
are
conditions.
Obviously certain precautions can, and should, be observed reduce errors: The laboratory and polariscoperoom should well ventilated
be
should
and
of the
be in the
not
gar,
in
used
part
reports), should
be
as
vicinityof
basis
a
rather
iiii tropicallaboratories
a
wall
ariscope polor
the
be
prepared and Composite samples of
a
than
technical
time
(run
reports
of low
temperature
in the heat
of the
noon. after-
required for the instrument itself when of the Laurent liglt. type using monochromatic Limits in Saccharimetric of Accuracy 87. sis.* AnalyNo
temperature
"
Dr.
*
Handbook
*
Dr.
C.
C.
of Sugar A.
Browne,
the
title before
20, 1914.
A.
The from
New comments
this paper,
correction
heated
should
of the
polarized at
The
temperature.
same
solutions laboratory-ovens. The polarized at room temperature. 8
also be used.
may
factories
sugar
observation, may polarizing cane-sugar
to
applicable to
are
standard
under
to
Wiley'stable
that
formula
table, nor
corrections.
that the
states
in which
all
Browne
Y.
twelve
notes
Analysis, N.
is
and
may
255-262.
pp.
Sugar
Orleans
that
errors
Trade
Section
of
conclusions
Lab., read the in
including the summing
Am. this up
a
with
paper
Chem.
paragraph of the
this
Soc., Nov. residual
are
stracted aberror.
ACCURACY
into
enter
analysis. While
sugar
sugar-testingthey apply also other
to
185
ANALYSIS.
SACCHARIMBTRIC
IN
these refer specifically to exto^it in all
considerable
a
analyses:
1. Loss
of moisture
during mixing.
of moisture
during weighing.
Loss
2. 3.
Error
in normal
6.
Error
in capacity of flasks.
7.
Imperfect mixing of contents of flask* Evaporation during filtering. Error in length of polariscopetubes.
weights. 4. Volume of precipitatein clarification. 5. Precipitationof levulose.
8. 9.
of bichromate
10. Omission 11.
Variations
12.
Defects
The
errors
vary
3, 6,
results. but
with
weights
near
and
9
careful
each
slightlyon
may
balance.
12
flasks
Since
disappear
errors
the
in temperature.
in scales of saccharimeters.
and the
cell.
in
the
and
tubes
do
not
in
appear
that
numbers, the The of duplicate tests.
averages
correct
of easilybe kept within the limits of accuracy be checked The scales of the jK)lariscopemay
be
corrections
scale may
Haensch
control-tube,Fig. 29.
the
following plus
are
numbered
as
errors
in the
Other checked
be
may
standard
accurate
made.
of the
Dr.
enter
quartz
points and with
Browne
the
in fact
Schmidt
estimates
These
previous list: Sugar
to:
Mixing on paper 2. Evaporation during weighing of precipitatein clarification. 4. Volume 5. Precipitationof levulose of the 7. Imperfect mixing of the contents .
.
Degrees. 05
+0
.
-f0.02 +0
18 .
-|-0.03
+0.05
flask
Evaporation during filtering of the bichromate
cell
10.
Omission
11.
Temperature variation from the standard Total
" that
in careless work.
1.
8.
pensating com-
selected
be
may
side of the
all parts
due
general mutually
management
important points with
the
plates and
Error
iii
are
error
-|-0.04 -f-0.07 +0.04 +0.48
186
The and
last the
in
Error
four
first
careful
0.20**
to
may
be
reduced.
should
not
exceed
four
ANALYSIS.
SUGAB
amounting
6iT0ts
work
due
IN
METHODS
OPTICAL
The
preventable
are
final
+0.12
residual
error
follows:
as
Sugar
tor
Degrees.
.
1.
Evaporation
in
mixing
2.
Evaporation
in
weighing
'Volume
4.
Total
There
are
considered introduced the
or
upon
The in
previous
alumina
of
permit,
will
Home's
dry-lead
precipitate
would
which to
"
0.5**
in is
tests or
in
defense
an
use
is
improbable this
morning
of arbitrary
that
admit.
the
most
addition error
during
lies the
temperature
so,
both
will
a
constant
in
a
lead
the
volume
these of
may
the error.
errors
in
lead
important
This
to
of
levulose
acetate
deal.
Since
cases.
the
dried
must
of
when
acetate,
nearly
or
of
one
that
acetate
eliminates
color
tion prepara-
from
normal
basic
of
use
chemist
against
the
possible
of
error
extreme
early in the the
the
conditions
tropical
the
is
It
pressure
entirely avoidable.
are
the
been those
as
cover-glasses,
removes,
by
temperature
laboratory
only
method
reduced
be
of
practically
error.
clarifying, where The
instead
such
work,
temperature
errors
or
already
quarta-plates,
different
cream
clarification
the
the
standardized a
have
this
of
pages
Such
etc.
material
of
at
that
error
upon
of the
solution
use
of
pressure
observation,
the
+0.120
the
wiping
the
of
+0.015
error
sources
by
+0.090
levulose
other in
+0.005
precipitate
of
Precipitatioikof
6.
+0.010
i
with
amount
temperature
sugar-house,
making
low-temperature corrections.
the
important
period,
188
METHODS
CHEMICAL
liter-flask, dilute
a
caustic
dilute 1000
inversion
the
completing
After
it
and
ANALYSIS.
transfer
neutralize
complete
and
cc.
solution
ths
almost
then
solution
soda
SUGAR
IN
to
with
it
volume
the
to
" .
analyzed
be
Measure*
50
of the
cc.
Collect
by
the
of
weight
this
weight in
sucrose
inversion, If the to
0.95
in
material
and
of
(B), beaker,
250-cc.
determine
using
minutes,
on
of
the
number
it to
of
terms
material
the
the of
OHiltiply of
weight
This
used.
yields
sucrose
it
of milligrams
189, 190, and
pages
in
copper
Ascertain
235.
page
the
the
plication multi-
invert-sugar,
on
100:95.
glucose
determine
Calculate
the
before
method
the
by
in
(reducing-sugar)
reduction
the
inversion
invert-sugar.
two
from
contains
after
boil
118,
since
ratio
the
and
reduce
to
quantity
sucrose,
118,
in
necessary
a
and
using the table
the is
for
methods
by
into
:
lamp.
invert-sugar
the
solution
of
cc,
416,
solution
oxide
cuprous
reduced,
copper
by
of the
the
of
one
page
sugar
flame
najted
the
397,
25
Wein
and
j
and
(A)
Meissl
of
should
and
levulose
and
foUowi^jg method solution
of
cc.
solution,
Soxhlet's add
the
by
25
dextrose
contains
solution
The
inversion described
just of
percentage
tion addi-
sucrose
as
follows: Per
cent
material
method
quantity
this
no
is present,
sucrose
paragraph are
Glucose
selected
substance
cent
per
for
in
glucose
the
sucrose.
(Beducing-sugar), glucose material
in the
depends
upon
also
and
"
th^.
whether
is present.
sucrose
If
of
of
be
to
inversion"
after
required
=the
:""0.95
Determlnatloa
90.
The
invert-sugar
present,
one
is to of
the
be
the used.
methods
method If on
described both page
sucrose
235
in and
should
the
ceding pre-
glucose be
ployed. em-
DETERMfNATlON
TABLE
FOR
THE
ESTIMATION
OF
SUCROSE.
OF
INVERTSUGAR.
180
190
TABLE
CHEMICAL
FOR
THE
METHODS
OP
ESTIMATION
OF
SUGAR
ANALYSIS.
INVERTnSUGAR.-Con"intt"l.
\
DETERMINATIONS.
DENSITY
APPARATUS
General
91.
degree
the
term
of
solution.
the
this
in
used
Brix
or
This
use
in
sense
graduations
The
"
termed
is
matter,
the
instruments
of
than
word
and
convenience.
will
work
sugar-
the
degree
be
are
Brix
the
of total
by
drying
is
in
Brix
often
termed
degrees
is
floating
understood
Balling,
to
and
the
is of
the
be
It
these
as
it
more
work.
Brix.
solution
mined deter-
as
true
degree the This
meant.
readings
in
The
"true,"
word
the
by
it
spindle
a
degree
called
a
liquid.
a
sugar-house
sugar
is often
qualified
degree
a
in
percentage
renders
apparent in
matter oven
an
when
Except
apparent
solid
the
the ^'The
spindle,
in
by
but
analysis
in
called, which
determined
as
This
sucrose
the
or
were
America. of
as
instrtunent
data Brix.
sugar
hydrometer,
Baum^
the
in
weight
Brix
eter hydrom-
Germany,
solids, dissolved
total
the
by in
by
of
system
Balling;
commercial
solution, is termed
percentage
The
In
This
names
percentage
Brix,
degree
scale
strictly
the
in
exclusively
commonly
are
convenient
spindle
and
checked
almost
the
or
feature
Brix.
"density"
is not
density
used
frequently
the
brevity
by
both
by
consider
to
customary
sugar
for
and
solution.
sugar
The
usage
devised
was
is used
Brix
is this
by
Balling."
or
is known
"Brix'*
solid
word
recalculated
hydrometer
pure
of the
book
also
Baum^
degree
hydrometers
Brix
afterwards
degree
this
on
graduation
name
chemists
Sugar the
synonymously
industry
sugar
is
"density"
expression
degrees."
Degree
92.
the
the
it is sanctioned
but
correct,
a
in
used
^The
"
"specific gravity."
with
"^
Remarks.
commonly
very
METHODS.
AND
on
its
Balling.
French
Brix-Dupont
two
use
and
the
modifications Brix-Vivien
of
this
spindles.
instrument, The 191
Brix-
19^
DENSITY
-
hydrometer reads 0" in distilled water Brix the spindle reads 0" at 17i" C, or
Dupont whereas
standard
the
to
DETERMINATIONS.
Chemistry,
Both
20" C.
at
100
in
sugar
weight and
of the
terms
of
percentage
these
well
be It may modifications
that
state
to
indicate
has
which
at
of
standard
the
is marked
of
values
relation
the
sugar
termed
are
and
Baum^
water
with
spelled the
94.
is marked of
1.8427
specific also graduated
of from
range
the
zero;
0"
50"
to
at
was
industry, but
scale.
Planters
one
at
of
the
recalculated,
Baum^
the *'new"
scale. or
time
used
The
"corrected"
given in the table, page
those
are
scale
Hydrometers
460.
almost
exclusively present chemists usually prefer
and
sugar-^maker^ still
Spindles.-^These
or
'^saccharometers"
frequently termed for
the
use
in
instruments
when
specially
the
graduated industry. "ugar A high-grade Brix hydrometer is shown in Fig. 46. instrument for
centage per-
scale.
Baum^
are
(also
spindles are
but
graduations
the
degrqps Baume
Brix
Baum6
sulphuric acid
Baum^
zero,
in
sucrose
sugar.
temperature
in pure
numbers
recalculated
the
its
required in the sugar industry. Scheibler and later Mategczek and
Gaslach
in the
spindle and
is
is all that
The
any
66".
below
for densities
the
in
sugar-house product. The hydrometer sinks in distilled
Baumd
the
correspondingpoint gravity
convenient
no
composition to
of
percentages
"
scale
Brix
the
containing only the pure The Baume. Degree
Beaum^)
water
in
of sugar
i.e.,grams
solutions
point
15" C.
at
of solution.
cc.
93,
cates indi-
hydrometer
solution
a
volume,
indicate
hydrometers
Brix- Vivien
The
percentages by weight. the
of
C,
according Congress of
International
adopted by the
15"
at
is
use
provided
ordinary work,
glass,and
without
the
standard
instruments
hag
with
in the
the
a
thermometer.
factory,are
thermometer.
made
This
Instruments of
In America
metal and
or
of
many Ger-
for the
temperature graduation of these The been, until recently, 17}" C. present
adopted by the International Congress of Applied Chemistry is 20" C, though this is not yet in general For these st^ndarda.' varying from use. temperatures standard
HYDBOMETEBS
OR
193
SPINDLES.
r\
corrections
must
be
Hydrometers
whose
is
temperature distilled water and
the
the
water
at this
a
volume 450
page
temperature
20
gravityis
words, the solution
1 7i" C.
at
of
of
The
at
the
table
for this normal
17i" C. whose
normal
is 20*^0.,
standard
or
specifiedby the try, Congress of Applied Chemisas
in water
floated
ture, reac! 0", and
the
at this
the
solutions, with
ponding
21
"H
Brix,
are
page
477.
A
tempera*
correspondingspecific The specific gravities
0.998234. of
Hl^
read 0".
weight
is constructed
International when
other
the
to
of water
lU
10
in
floated
of the sugar
is referred
Hydrometers
10
when
ings. read-
standard
or
temperature, In
volume
temperature, i 17
17J*'C.,
is 1.0000.
17J" C.
on
normal
the
corresponding specifiegravity
weight of same
applied to
In
corres^
the
given in
degrees the
table,
using the hydrometer,
it is floated
in
the
sugar
1-
solution on
the
and
of the and
17:
the
level
is at the
surface of the
liquid
ing, is selected for the readsince
varies
R'
viscosity of
the
R
at
R\ of Fig. 47.
not
point R
The
reading
scale is made
point R,
ig
the
with tion. solu-
the
It is often necessary mate estisolutions to in dark the
119::If
^
point R. the
vo-
jblOi
4(i.
FiQ.
47.
to
made
allowing for
become
the
of
the
reading of
The
scale is not
after
time
position
until
suflicient
hydrometer of the
same
194
DENSITY
DETERMINATIONS.
If the
the solution.
temperature of the liquid varies from the normal temperature for which the hydrometer is graduated,the observed reading of the scale must be corrected. temperature
as
For
instruments
whose
normal
temperature is 17}" C.J the corrections given in Gerlach's table,page 489, should be used. For instruments that are graduated at 20" C, in mission of the International Comconformitywith the specification for Uniform Methods, the table of corrections en pages 490 and work
to
491 should be used.
hydrometer
the
use
The
correction tables should
for
approximate results when Hydrometers the
the
be used the
with caution
and
onlv
differsmuch
temperature
the normal.
from
on
at near
It is necessary in accmrate its normal temperatiure.
paper
mercury
also made
writer recommends
The
with
printed with the thermometric degrees, the height of column indicatingthe correction to be applied. are
the
corrections
the iyp^f of hydrometer
shown
in
No difficulty is exbeing included. Fig. 46, the thermometer perienced in molasses soluin reading the temperature, even tions,
the instrument
since at most the
column
mercury
need
The
emerges.
be
lifted
should
stems
diameter, that the graduation may
only until
be of very and easily
be open read" A range of 10" Brix per 5 to 5.5 inches of stem is advised. Hydrometers should be tested from time to time, employing small
standardized solutions of the
at
temperature
which
pure
the
sucrose,
instrument
cylinder should
at
approximately graduated.
was
be
wide, so that the hydrometer-jar or spindlemay float perfectlyfreely. Balanced ^The principle of this The 95. Westphal be brieflystated as follows: A glass balance, Fig. 48, may bob is so adjusted as to be capable of displacing a given The
"
of grams,
number
five
for instance, of distilled water immersed
at
a
in the
wholly liquid and given teniperature fine wire. The bobs platinum b^ suspended by a may but for sugar-work ITi** C. graduated for any temperature; when
convenient, since this is
is most
in
employed
the temperature
is to
be
detei*mined
Adapted
Uluftration.
temperature
tables. preparingspecific-gravity
work
1
the
from
of the should
solution be
Bxilletin 13, Chem.
whose
exactly
that
For
usually accurate
specificgravity for which
Div., U. 8. Dept. Atrl.;
the also
1% '
DETERMINATIONS.
DENSITY
sponding graduations of
the
.300, .030, .003, .0003,
etc.
from
hook
of
case
The
which
bob
the
fallingupon the using the balance
of
balance
the
solution,at the standard with
riders
the
be
suspended
ia
graduation.
same
is
follows:
as
described
as
above
pend Susin
the
and
weight the beam is in equilibrium. Read
temperature,
until the
for other
weights may
one
of
method
Each
additional
than
more
graduationsr rider is provided with a
and
beam,
balance
off the
specificgravity from the position of the weights the beam. on Example: In determining the specificgravity of a sample of cane juice the position of the riders was
as
follows:
t
point of suspension of the bob
1 at 2 not
the
on
7.
3at
beam. =0.07
.r
.
4 at
"=1 .000
9
Specificgravity
=0
.009
=1
.079
correspondingto the specific degree Brix or Baum6 from the table, page be ascertained 482. gravity may bottles so are Pyknometers. structed conPyknometers 96. The
"
that
they
Given
liquid.
filled with
be
may
the
weight with the weight of an
It is not
often
necessary
definite volume
a
of this volume,
to
equal volume use
a
of
a
be comit may pared of distilled water.
pyknometer
in technical
rapid density determinations by the hydrometer accurate. being usually sufficiently in a great variety of forms. One Pyknometers are made
work, the
of the most
more
convenient
outlet
for the
in
Fig. 49.
The
side
of
the liquid when is put in place, also for the stopper, a fine thermometer, of the liquid rises. The bottle overflow, as the temperature should be filledwith the liquid cooled to a temperature lower the density is to be determined. As that at which than the pands temperature rises to the desired point, the liquid extube
provides
of these is shown
and tube.
the
At the and as
an
excess
is blotted
with
required temperature
receives the
excess
any
further
temperature
rises
the
paper cap
is
liquid that to
that
at
the^ side
placed in position
be pelled, exmay of the work-room.
197
TTKNOMETERS.
There
is
escape
of the air.
minute
a
opening
top of the
in the
cap
for the
/TN
in
It is convenient
termine de-
sugar-work gravity at 17 J**C, specific the solution at this temperature being of the with an equ"d weight compared to
the
of water
volume
Committee
Uniform
on
20"
Analysis adopted
of
4"C., the
at
Methods
C.
the
as
is indicated
as
follows:
of
that
and
standard
used
C. "-^-75 =1.07936,
of the
the" temperature
that
meaning
of its
temperature
density. The
maximum
solution
national Inter-
it to for the solution,referring
standard water
The
17i" C.
at
the
water
were
above the line 17i". The number that below is that of the solution,and
each
"
line,that of the water. of the pyknometer, described By means in this article, the weighings can readilybe made of the liquidheld by the gravity bottle at 17i"C. The specific the
under specific-gravity
these
conditions
is
by dividingthe weight of the solution by the weight of an equal calculated
volume In
the
In both
of water.
cases
the
bottle is filled at 17^" C.
determining the specific gravityat process
is
more
Fig. 49.
the standard
^
complicated,since the expansion of and
C, the
air
the
be taken into densitymust glass pyknometer The account. following description of the calculations, from
also the table,are
The
is
constant
it
was
weighed.
weight
is the
for the
The
apparent
mass
should
at the
therefore
The
weight
of the water
temperature, be
pyknometer
cooled distilled water, and
temperature
pyknometer
filledand
work.*
recentlyboiled and
is first filled with
and
Landolt's
determined
are
in the
noted.
air,a
t^,at which with
great
care.
*
Optischem
Drebungsvermogen.
kJ
K8
DETERMINATIONS.
DENSITY
calculations
The
whicli
letters have
the
TFo,the apparent
by the followingformula, in
made
are
of the
mass
indicated
values
the
below:
air at
in the
water
the
perature tem-
^oJ the
Fj
apparent
the
of the
mass
solution
sugar
in the
air at
t;
temperature
at the temperature specificgravity of water /gj coefficient cubical of the expansion of glass; 3^=0.000024,
Q,
the
"l=0.0012,
air
density;
rf|= specific gravity of the solution of the sugar t referred
The
of the
first factor
gravity, the
second
temperature
and
weights The the
in
third
the
at 4" C.
water
formula
factor
perature tem-
is the uncorrected
corrects
the
specific
specificgravity for
factor
is for
taken
from
the
reduction
to
vacuo.
of
value
end
to
at the
Q
may
of this article.
is small,
a
SPECIFIC
GRAVITY
mean
(From
be
If the
difference
value, 0.00C024, OF
Landolt's
WATER
AT
Optischem
Landolt's
may
VARIOUS
be
between used
for
table
^and
3^.
TEMPERATURES.
Drehungsvermogen.)
at
t^
GENERAL
ANALYTICAL
SAMPLING
97.
General
One
of the
"
of
the
diffezent
not
strictly repnaent analyticalwork
the
order
In
of
the
samples
material*
Or, they
a
defini^^^
composition of the material, value.
usually be of but little if any
continuously
drawing
securing rq)revarious products ait If a sample does
manufacture.
drawn
be
must
the
of
is that
the average will
Averaging.
unsatisfactory, problems
juices and
the
st.'^es of the
that
often
chemist
c^mensugar
and
Sampling
on
difficult , and
samples
sentative
AVERAOINQ.
AND
Remarks most
for the
WORK.
be
may in
representative they
proportion
secured
be
must
sample,
quantity in each
to
the
quantity intervals,
at
from
a
measured
weighed quantity of the material, the size of the sample
or
always bearing the This
sami^ed. and
by the Let
of
Importance D
and
A,B,C,
method
second
the
to
is the
of material
amount
usually practiced
one
sampling by aliquot parts.
is termed
The
relation
same
A"1000,
a
proper
which
5"800,
lot differ from
average
and
C=500, in
others
the
an
four
lots of
of the
sirup.
In
averaging
analysis. Manifestly a
and
and
analyses of
the
Thus
the volume. the
represent the average
house, it is advisable
cane-sugar
than
would
sdlids
apparent
at the
end
of
the
**
a
run
let each
Z)"*=200, and
equal patts of sirup ftom these lots would not of 10 parts o( A^S sample, but a mixture average 2 parts of D
the to
wei^ts
(Brix) "
or
sirup
sample is to be drawn.
of
C, and
trated is illus-
sampling
Given
following example: from
of
method
various use
the
of the
should
period the
mixture
be
sum
true
oi B, 5 of
composition
materials
in
a
weights rather
juice,the be
a
sucrose,
recorded of
the 199
daily
daily
200
GENERAL
ANALYTICAL
WORK.
divided weights of sucrose by the weight of the juice and the quotient multiplied by 100, will give the mean per cent in the juice and so on. of sucrose Similarlythe anal3^sesof those of the other products the sugars, and, so far as possible, should
be
averaged. For the general laboratory data, the author prefers to collect daily one composite sample of the juices and each product. This is advisable since the quantity of mg,terial estimated or represented by the analyses is usually known daily,thus giving the analytical work a definite value. the Cane in the Field. 98. It is pracSampling tically "
impossible to will be
that The
conditions, is
of iinalysis
parts of
obtain
to
even
the
from
to
of the
the
great
fields,the to
field.
a
accomplish, under sample that will in
able favorvery
a
Thfe
cane.
variations
Frequently in
day
of sugarcane
that of
stool and- also from
same
many
little from
will differ but
a
field.
small
a
receiving cane
is due
from
canes
sample
to
condition
the
sampling
in
hope
may
indicate
way
moderate"sized
a
fairlyrepresentativeof
even
chemist
best the
general
secure
ficulty dif-
in
the
various
large factory,
a
daily average
day whereas
analyses singleanalyses
widely from the average. In few stalks should be selected a sampling cut cane from second third row, or crossing the field one or every more times, according to its size, in sampling. The laiige sample, after mixing the canes, should be reduced by subsize for the laboratory. This sampling to one of convenient method is frequently impracticable, since the carts often may
vary
follow is
It
few
an
cutters.
almost
cane
fields,but
not
stools
canes
should
sample standing
impenetrable jungle.
of
entire
these
the
difficult to
more
parts of the and
behind
even
field is
the a
close
be
should from
reduced
secured
be
ditches
near
to
a
cane,
In
this
from or
since case
various
headlands,
convenient
mixing them thoroughly. of sampling the whole Perhaps the best method
number,
after
its arrival at
to
await
or
car-loads 99.
The
the
factory, then
other and apart from cane, at the the Cane Sampling
cane
is
grind several cartanalyze the juice.
Diffusion-bai^ry."
cane-chips may
be
sampled with
considerable
accuracy
201
BAGASSE.
SAMPLING
diffusion-battery.A handful of the cuttings or chips be withdrawn should shortly after they begin to fall into at the
diffuser,and
the half
filled.
this
be
taken
to
the diffuser is about
when
should
agate-ware
or
should
way
handful
samples
These
metal
covered
second
a
stored
be
in
pail. The samples the laboratory at
clean
a
drawn
in
frequent The milling
ground in the small mill. should be made very heavy by repassingthe bagasse through be composited, the The the mill. juice samples should in proportion to the number small samples being drawn be
and
intervals
of diffusers. Pellet a
*
the
recommends
period of
storage of the fresh chips during
hours, by placing an
twelve
ammonia
concentrated
open
bottle containing
in the
covered
sample-pail or
and
Exhausted
Diffusion-
box.
Bagasse
Sampling
100.
chips. ^To a certain extent the bagasse presents the same The bagasse,however, sampling difficultiesas the whole cane. in its passage less well mixed is more through the mills or be overcome and irregularities the by sampling across may "
conveyor.
Samples of bagasse should include all of that on a section its entire width. On of the bagasse-carrier, reaching the be quickly and the sample should thoroughly lalxHratory^ small mixed and sub-sampled. The sample may be analyzed immediately or stored six hours in a closed box in the presence A should be saturated with the of formaldehyde. sponge
preservativeand In
diffusion
removing
be attached
work, the
handful
a
to the
inside of the box-cover.
exhausted each
from
chips
diffuser
as
are
sampled by charged. they are dis-
samples should be stored in a covered for drainage. At vessel, with provision at the bottom should frequent intervals the composite samples so formed be analyzed and the analyses weighted, in calculatingthe of diffusers. day's average, according to the number the Juice. saturation or imbibition When 101. Sampling to secure is practiced it is necessary two samples of the These
small
"
one mill-juice,
1
from
Bulletin
the first mill and
Aasoo.
des
the second
ChimisteB,
XXII,
922.
from
all the
202
ANALYTICAL
GENERAL
mills.
It is
preferabletb draw
WORK.
the firstof these
samples from there is habilityof water the juice canal of the crusher when from the mill-bearings mixing with the juiceand in any events it is usually advisable
to
sample
Brix of this first sample is used so-called
normal
this
at as
a
undiluted
juice or
point. The degree basis in calculating the juice^from the analysis
mixed
juicesfrom the train of mills. The degrees. Brix of the two samples are also used in calculatingthe dilution of the mixed juicedue to maceration or leakage of water
of
the
the
mill-journals. in determining the factor Special sampling is necessary coefficient to be applied in reducing the degree Brix of
from
or
the crusher
or
first mill and
to terms of the norcrusher-juice^ mal be yielded in milling of equal efficiency
juice that would without a
maceration
of times
Bufficient number
tions with crusher
system
and
(or crusher are
automatic
in the
separatelysampled. devices
and
The
first mill) and
should
be
The
be determined its Taria-
to note
season
milling conditions.
and
cane
This factor should
water.
that
juicesfrom from"^ the
sampling should
continuous
for
an
the
entire be
hour
by or
sample is of relativelyhigh degree Brix, and purity, due to the comparatively moderate content sucrose The applied in crushing the cane. degree pressure Brix of the second sample is lower than that of the first on longer. The
first
crushing by the mills which and many of the impuritiesof the cane. extracts the rind-juice the degrees Brix of the two The factor is the relation between samples. The following ^utmple illustrates the calculation of
account
and
the
v"ry
of the factor:
use
heavy
Brix of the two
samples, respectively,
Brix 0.986. of the 4- 20 19.7"; factor mixed-juicesin regularmilling,19.6, then 19.6 X0.985" 19.3, undiluted the degree Brix of the normal or juice. The juice should be sampled automatically and in proportion The milling is usually veary uniform to that extracted. under good conditions of equipment and operation, hence 20"
and
=
19.7
"
ism, samplers may be operated by some part of the mill mechanpreferably a roll-shaft. Certain t3rpes of samplers may be driven by a reciprocating or other part of the juieepump.
The
Calumet
is
an
efficient type of
samplers (Fig. 50).
204
a
screw
WORK.
ANALYTICAL
GENERAL
adjustingthe
cavity and consequently inch hole is drilled at right angles to
for
of the
size of the
sample. A ^ the cavity and through it. Corresponding holes are drilled barrel for the inlet of air and the discharge through the pump of the sample from the plunger. Two rings of packing, controlled the by a follower and packing-ring,are placed around plunger, one between
the
at
end
outer
and the juice-inlet
barrel
of the
outlet.
and
should
Th^re
the be
other
an
oval
opening in the packing-ring where it passes the juice-outlet, to admit of adjustment. The barrel of the sampler is screwed into the pipe from which the juice is to be drawn is and This sampler may be clamped into place with a locknut. ing operated ^om a reciprocatingpart of the juice-pump, reducthe
such as is used in speed, if need be, by a mechanism pumping oil to a bearing. The vertical- or outlet-hole in the plunger is made the cutting of the small to reduce packing. device
A
heavy
wire
bottle. the
that may
be used
under
from
the
stream
should
be
given
leading wire
The
delivery point. It is
trash and
favorable
is
a
juice to the samplesharp upward turn at
of a
to
necessary
keep the wire free
of
cient large enough to conduct suffijuice to minimize the evaporation error. An undershot water-wheel, just dipping into the juice and driven by the current, may be used to sample from a canal. The
further
it should
conditions
axle of the wheel
should
sample spoons
be tubular
which
should
and
to
serve
be hollow
and
spokes should
take up
a
a
few of the
spokes
through the axle with the
communicate
hollow
The
jar.
be
terminate
littleof the
juice and
in small deliver
it
throi-ghthe spokes and axle to the jar. Coombs' drip sampler, Fig. 51, may be used if the juice is As is shown in the figure,a small thoroughly strained. of juice or other liquid is led through a glass T-tube stream and of the tube by properly adjusting the side branch a small stream of liquid is diverted through it to the sample jar.
Samples acting pump The
be drawn
may
by
valve
should
pressure
at
means
be
each
from of
a
discharge-pipeof a direct spring-controlledrelief-valve.
adjusted to pump
the
open
stroke.
at
the moment
of
est high-
EAMFLING
The
as
difRcultywith
most
is their hability
to
their sampling
to
and
paaaing them under
sample canal
into
Calumet is
with
canal
the
of
samplers It
draw
and
are
^th
samples if the
a
mills
When
this
sampler
from
the
crusher
it is usually
to
hand in
and
and
the
should are
be
small
one
a
when
it
and
is
ia connected
sample
is from
good approximation
very
Almost
The
all mechanical
the
mixed
juices
to
of juice at regular intervals
sample.
defecators drawn
its
pump
a
drip samplers.
sampling
composite
a
a
from
flow.
sample
correct
latter.
leading
average
an
drawing
from
form
defecators
when
line
measuring-cupful
is used
drawing
liquid
of
quantity
dischai^
necessary
these
the
the
superior
small
foul, uncertainty
to
several
representative sample.
is often a
system
a
e.g.
juices from
part ol the juice, but
a
to
necessiurilydraws
with the
clog, tendency
conditions,
the
sampler
by
met, erfthese samplers, except the Calu-
the probability of not
which
operated
205
JDICE.
in proportion
certain
connected
only
THE
are
whoii
If the
large,two fillingeach
defecation small
ured meas-
tank;
sample will suffice.
but
If the
206
GENERAL
juice flows into Bimilar drawn
ANALYTICAL
Urge
processes, the
as
in the
ttning-tanlui,as or
one
tank
WORK.
is
samples
should
enunple,
when
small
more
for
filling,one,
has
tank
three
a
into
juice is
small
sample
the
Horsin-D^oii
below
for the
the
the
The
"
of
juice to
in
on
DiffustOB-
diffusion
means
of
with
juice the
a
by
Uorsin-Dten
52,
cock
consists of for
suitable
a
connecting alternately
measuring- tank
and
float.
measuring-tank.
of juice drawn
dmw-
sample
stand-pipe
the
is operated by the
measurement
apparatus
small
each
meaaur-
the automatic
the
three-way
of
from
small
a
This
ing of
This
process
measurement
sampler, Fig.
the sample
preserva"-
farther
juice, drawn
facilitates
that
other
in regard
Sampling
ing-tank.
arranged
the
the
given
diffuser, in
BO
density
samples
requires the
placed inEide
the
be
207.
Julce.
is
should
and
for
are
102.
sampler
work.
observations
page
The
described
polarization.
of
them
by
siicilar
a
as
for
Methods
the sample-bottle and
or
samples
determination
a
drawn
be
for difFu"on
one
the
to
defecatora,
sampler
drawn,
pumped
flows
may
Duplicate
62.
when
or
the
automatic
Flo.
second
first
it
liming-tanks,
,
feet of
measuring-tanks,
which
from
and
the
nearly filled.
If the
tion
be
four
or
juice in it,and it is
and
Deming
It
is
is proportionate
PRESERVATION
battery should
the
from
in the
quantity of juice
the
to
OF
enter
207
SAMPLES.
tank.
the
The
discharge-pipe
measuring-tank from
the
sampler should be directlyover the battery, if practicable projecting a short the inlet from distance into the pipe. If this precaution is not observed, sample
the
inlet to
The
bottom.
be
not
may
the
representative of the
tankful
of
juice. Care
103. "
^In order
infection
of
that
and
Preservation
Samplers.
of
sampler itself may not be the decomposition of the
the
Samples.
a
source
of
samples, it be kept thoroughly clean and be frequently sterilized. must of a steam-jet is usually the most Cleansing by means and efficient method. All sampling devices convenient should be thoroughly sterilized several times daily. The cause
with hot after each water sample jars should be washed The chemist be thoroughly dried. should and use fully realize that in analyzing samples that are improperly drawn leading eared for he id wasting his time and is obtaining misor
results. measured
Where
at intervals by the samples are drawn be conveniently stored in wide-mouthed,
workman, they may glass^toppered jars. The in perforation
it to
stopper
should
prevent sticking when
have
small
a
the
temperature size for the jars is three of the factory falls. A convenient the mouth should be fully13 cm. Mters and (5 inches) in is to obviate the The object of the large tnouth diameter. from of a funnel and to prevent the workmen use spilling juice on the edges of the jar. Small metal-cups, with long for measuring the samples; The handles, are convenient the number size of the cups depends upon of tanks that are filled and
10-15
These time of
daily; usually cups
before
a
3-5
cc.
cup
for the
sucrose
sample
the
suitable sizes. density sample are should be thoroughly rinsed with juice each drawing the samples, and after the addition
cc.
samples the
for
contents
of the
jars should
be
thoroughly
mixed.
sampling is complicated in a factory operating more than one tandem if these are operated at of mills,especially different capacities. If the mixed-juicesare pumped through The
a
a pump singlepipe-line,
sampler of
the Csdumet
type
may:
208
be
GENERAL
with
connected
If the
juices are
ANALYTICAL
WORK.
juioe-pump and
the
be
i
operated by it.
independently from each mill it be necessary to attach a sampler to each mill-pump may and composite the sainples in proportion to the quantity of cane In some installations it is ground by each tandem. to resort to hand sampling. necessary A
pumped
be added
must preservative
samples in compositing.
to the
be Samples for use in the Brix and ash determinations may preserved during 24 hours by the addition of 0.3 to 0.5 cc. of a 40 per cent formaldehyde solution per liter of juice. also be preserved by the addition These of samples may mercuric
chloride,using
should
juice. Formaldehyde samples that
are
1 part of the
to be used
in
salt per 5000 parts of be used in compositing
not
and
sucrose
tions. glucose determina-
satisfactorypreservative of juices for sucrose oi lead. and glucose tests is Home's This dry subacetate used in the proportion is a very efficient preservative when of 12 grams a juicesample per liter of juice. It will preserve The
most
This salt must periods far exceeding 24 hours. used in excessive quantitiesand after each addition for
not
be
juice with the preservative. the sample should be thoroughly mixed of lead is used in solution,an estimate of If the subacetate of
probable volume of juicethat will be included in the days' and for each estimated composite sample should be made 100 cc. 5 cc. of the lead solution should be accuratelymeasured the into, the sample-jar. At the close of the day's work of the sample and preservative should be ascertained volume the
and
then
sufficient water
dilution 10
per
enables
use
the
cent
be added
should
of the
of Schmitz's
volume
of the
table for
juice itsdlf. This
sucrose.
preferableto composite the samples thus givingthe chemist a good control itself, It is
boys, and making regular intervals. 104. Sampling of the the press
and
sure
the
that
the
of the cake
itself.
in the
varies This
Cake.
laboratory the
over
subsamples
FUter-press
cake filter-press
the total
to make
drawn
are
"
^The
in different
makes
sampleat
position com-
parts of
strictlyaccurate
be left in the sampling impracticable since this work must The best approximations and comhands of the pressmen.
THE
8AHPLIN0
pariaoDS
are
atically fh"m The
obtained various
inatrummt
sampling. that
it may
This
latter
by cutdog
pieces
in Fig. 53
of
heavy
readily be grasped by ia fastened
209
CAXB.
of
the cake
ayetem-
parts of the press.
shown
It ia made
FILTER-PRESS
to
the body
is very
brass the or
and hand
suitable
for this
of such over
the
a
size
cover.
receptacle by bayonet
210
GENERAL
and
catches thick
and
ANALYTICAL
The
8et""8crew.
a
i inch
about
in
WORK.
is
cutter
diameter
brass-tube
a
ind'i
^
the
cutting edge. the receptacle,so
at
body of the tube is coned towards that the plug of cake will readily pass into the latter. The cutting edge should be of the thickness of the tube to prevent damage to the filtercloth. Several of these samplers should be provided so that one The
filled from
be
may
number
each
plugs in the usual
of
parts of the second The
plugs
in the
are
and
time and
formaldehyde,
with
sample should
The
is filled.
press
a
count
closing it. A
and
cover
the
after removal
a
various
and
so
on.
to
sent
holds
a
sponge
preservation of the the laboratory each
provides a check
cleaned.
of presses
cleaned
This
cut
receptacle,one remaining small tube, open at both
for
be
e.g. from
the fifth cake
to the inside of the
ends, is attached sample.
in the
should
pressmen
procedure,
cake, then from
accumulated
cutter
saturated
The
press.
on
the
sampling
The
oughly sampler should be thorof the plugs and returned to
the presses.
sample
The
fitted with be
may care
on
should
a
may
by
removing
the
piston
for
for the purpose,
employed
of risk of
account
be stored with
also be obtained
in
a
of^
means
plugs.
cork-borer
must
be
used
with
The
plugs
but
cutting the filtercloth.
covered
vessel in
brass-tube,
A
atmosphere
rated satu-
sampling of the tendency for the
press-
an
formaldehyde.
"It is difficult to control
or
check
the
cake, especiallyas there is a natural men pressWith the to sample only the hardest parts of the cakes. of washing the cake the error of of systematic methods use less important as the loss of sampling, however, becomes sugar
is small.
not samples, collected as has been described, are usually separately analyzed, but are composited, preferably
The
during six-hour periods. Each time that a filled receptacle is received by the laboratory, the plugs of press-cake should and chopped into fine pieces and be thoroughly be removed cake from each A measiu*ed mixed. portion of the minced hyde. t^ressshould be placed in a jar in an atmosphere of formaldeunited subsamples should be thoroughly mixed The and analyzed
once
every
six hours.
212
GENERAL
ANALYTICAL
boilera uauaJly fill the if the
of uniform
are
p"ns
otherwise ftlt, for
one a
there
each
convenient
the
A
is sampled
or
should
determination the
of the
These
same
by
the
Sugar.
sample
a
samples
The
with
for
glass forms
sirup,and, according
eiunples from
represent
the
time
to
of
for
method
Clerget
the
definite
a
of
sample
time
the
analyzed
are
calculation
the
The
"
from
be
at
made
represented by calculating the
true
quantity
should
frequent six
every
the
at
the sugar-scale of
padcage
be
thrown
opening
aa
ite
so
hours,
and
should
tin-box
a
receive
to
samples
into
them,
obtained
inten'als, preferably
sample
sugar
M.
composite
the
number
be
recorded
as
should
analysis
an
of
packages
for
use
in
averages.
sugar
in
(Fig. 55).
The
sampling
employed
The
workman
each
funnel-shaped
a
in Fig. 54,
analyzed
In
as
by
sucrose
samples should
remove
provided
should
of
composite
prepared
drying
Sampling
weighs it.
be
way
A
Fta.
shown
for
answer
material.
107.
'should
funnel
worii, the
the
be
of
solids
purity.
tsaees,
of proportionate meaaures,
stemless
composited.
are
final molasses
and
will
measure
set
a
small
in the
of
exigendea
separately the
be
one
in such
point;
same
measure.
Holasaee to
^ze,
should
pan.
the
to
pans
WORK,
the
packages
trier
is
a
a
"trier"
is
long trough-like
usually instru-
SAMi'LING
on
being
which,
ment,
withdrawal, which
through
to
the
air
short
as
sampling
by
U.
from
sample,
except
trierfuls
and
sugar be
it
exposing
Treasury
instructions
wooden
packages
the
in
\6ng
marks,
from
taken
furnish
required
the
each
for
bags,
baskets,
of
contents
from
samples
each When
quantity. of
use
short
the
and of
class the
sample
the
packages,
the
the
mats
take
to
In
in
short
such
mark
to
to
impracticable,
will
from
be
the
of
used, central
that
manner
of
carry
sampling
trier
shall
condition
triers
the
the
fairly
packages
hard
of
a
number
equal
necessary
sugar
regulations.
and
ceroons,
exercised
hping
of
the
constitute
an
package
the
through
to
when
shall
6"
amount
of
provisions
the
diagonally trierful
one
of small
cases
trier
chime,
to
be
shall
other
Fio.
the
the should
sample
limips,
S.
and
putting chime
package
care
of
possible.
as
the
hogsheads
in
sampled
out
This
all
time
a
are
representative
passed.
will,
sugar,
sugars:
''Sugar
of
has
reducing
following
The
be
it
of
quantity
a
sample
a
mixed,
thoroughly
into
plunged
remove
213
SUGAR.
be
the the
the
uniform
in
renders
sugar
knife
may
be
used." The
Treasury
packages
in
formerly.
a
require
regulations lot, instead
This
conforms
of to
a
certain conmiercial
the
sampling
proportion usage.
of of
all
them,
the as
OF
ANALYSIS
The
SUGARCANE.
Sucrose"
Direct
first step in the
analysis of the
of^the sample.
As
of the
sample with
the
of
Estimation
108.
THE
cane
milling
the
be
can
and
process
impossible
almost
to
has
been
Method.
is the
cane
shown
a
without
tion prepara-
representative
in diffusion
obtained
work,
special apparatus
accomplish this.
With
"
the
usual
but it is
facili-
FiG. 56.
ties,such neither
as
be
it should
be
sample
the
that
In the
to
of
state
sucrose.
noted
parts of
of the
shears, the
or
suitable
a
of the
extraction
Whole
knife
prepared rapidly enough in
nor
different
a
avoid
division
the
cane
can
by ation, evaporfor a thorough
error
analysis of whole
composition
stalks, thus
of whole
varies
canes
greatly in
complicating the
tion prepara-
sample. cane
can
be
rapidly and
properly shredded 214
by
ESTIMATION
OF
"
THE
215
StJCROSE.
""
essential Hyatt's eane-reducer,*Fig. 56. The machme a jvaumoei are cylinder,carrying parts of staggered or ''drunken" the saw^iisks are parallel saws; of
fneans
this
of
to
another
one
and
arranged to press the the machine, the saws of
account
on
the
machine-
The
fingers. A against the saws.
to
driven
at
throws
the
is
feed
operating
into
box
a
of
part
every
hair-like
and
cane
the
high speed, and
blades
the
prepared
Li
very
a
fine SBW-di"st
a
forced
or
staggering of
the
is reduced
cane
canes are
bearing lightlyon
them,
vibrators
steel
cylinder, are
between
fibers.
wiiere it
protected from moisture. With tlie author has' readily a laJrgeHyatt machine almost of the cane obtained in an coniplete exhaustioo diffusion work on a manufacturing scale, with very little dilution of the juice. In many remaiiiing tests, the' sucrose is
of the
cent
per
fnnn
residue
in the
For
weight of the
proceed' as
follows:
dish
Place
and boiling water off the liqtHd and
with
tions
during
add
another
in all
water
the
residue' in
the
portions of solution
liquid and To
100
lead
cc.
for
in
of this solution
of water,
these
after- the
clarification and
of
drain
diges-*
last press
from
the
determine
chips. Cool the its
degree Brix.
sugar-fiaskadd subaeetate 110 to complete the volume a
of oc.
filtraition
thorough mixing and
After
oc.
a
powerful press, uniting
other
ako
cc.
Repeat
times, and
drained
it and
weigh
in
minutes; oarefuUy
ten.
portion of -200
hydraulic or
a
cane
"^
minutes.
seven
0.07
whole
prepared eane approximately 200
add
ten
than
more
in the
sucrose
grams
boil
again digest during
and
never
cane.
100
.beaker and
or
was
of the
direct estimation
the
suitable
diffusion
the
polkri^e the filtrate, observati"m-tube. Divide the polariseope using a 600-mm. reading by 3, since a triple-lengthtube is used, and calculate' in the solution by Sehmita's the yer cent sucrose table, page
506.
Froto
the per
cent
weight of the latter,oakuldte nun^ber is the weight of sucrose f
^roentiageof
1
This
sucrose
macluDe
the Bffure and
it is
in the
ho^s Teoently now
known
the m
cane.
been as
in the soiiitioh and
sucrose
the
the
wieight of isudxise.^ This 100
grams
of
cane
or
the
"
somewhat "
modified
Warmoth-Hyatt
from cane
that
of
reducer."
216
ANALYSIS
of
Estimation
109. Methods.
Indirect
Sucrose.
the
laboratory control of the sucrose estimated factories, was by applying cane-6Ugar in the normal the percentage of sucrose juice to its weight In
"
derived
as
Francis
^
the
SUGAR-CANE.
THE
OF
called attention
experimenters have juice varies in the contains
water,
is almost
or
will
that
of the
of the undiluted
to terms
quite variable
and
analyses,in which The
cane
a
and. be In view
slowly pressed,
tions of these considera-
the tise of
juice. This
a
of the
sucrose
factor to reduce
factor
is
necessarily be placed upon
it is used. is discussed
method
above
the
by Soheibler, that piece of a stalk of cane
great reliance should
no
that
indirect estimation include
must
cane
If
hand-mill
an
ing assum-
water
the free end.
dripfrom
in
H.
other homogeneous. Many that the composition of the
colloidal sugar.
O.
100.
.ofthis method
part of the stalk and
same
small
a
it is evident content
also shown
termed
into
from (fflber)
error
to be
cane
of
marc
to the
quite free of
entered
water
days
by deducting the
juice of the
the
be
earlier
here
on
account
of
its
chemists and its bearing upon by many iQethodsof stating of mill-work. tike.efficiency of many As in the beet-sugar industry, it is the ""istom chemists factor from to deduce a experimental data, corresponding to the percentage of normal juice in the cane, and in calculatingthe sucrose by the indirect apply this number use
'
method.'
In order that
experimental data in
must
the
be applicable,the factor may be obtained under the same milling
such
a
extraction
of
the
juice sample upon the calculations. Such base which to factor can a only be" properly calculated froan data obtained by actual experiment deduced with the factory mills and when is so even but an approximation, since the composition of the cane is constantly changing. The following is the customary and probably the best conditions
as
in Working with analysis of the cane satmration. is taken without The weight of the cane department; the weight of mixed reported by the cane method
^
11th
The
of indirect
Royal
Agrioultural and
June, 1885.
Commercial
Society
of Britiah
or as or
Guiana,
FIBEB
WOODY
diluted
OR
217
MARC.
ftllthe mills is ascertained
Juicesfrom
by
direct
and calculation by the laboratory; by measur^nent the weight of bagasse is estimated by deducting the of the weights of weight of the diluted juice from the sum
weighing
the
is determined saturation-water; the sucrose festly juice and the bagasse by direct analysis. Maniand
cane
in
or
the
the
the
weight
weights of
of
is the
cane
of the
sum
in the
juice an4 bagasse, and this number and multipUed by 100 by the weight of the cane
divided
sucrose
gives the percentage of There
several
of the
water
parts with
more
that
less moisture
or
and
measures
conditions
mills; there
the
through
in^the cane.
sucrose
lead
inaccuracy method. The juice may be diluted by leakage used in cooling the mill-journals;the bagasse
are
in the above
where With
in the
sucrose
may
analyses. The modem
mills of
the old types of
may
to
by evaporation in passing be inaccuracies of weights,
first of these
good
need
construction
pected ex-
operated.
are
mills,however, it is often
be
not
to
necessary
bearings and a part of this is Uable to leak into the juice. Such leakage may usually very be detected relation between the the by noting percentage cooUng
run
water
saturation-water
of
the
from but
is
the
upon
and
the
evaporation of the
probably usually
number.
dilution moisture
be
cannot
in
The
error
eliminated,
given millingweights, sampling and analysis
very
Inaccuracies
constant
a
of plant. are usually avoidable. Inaccuracy in the measurement or weight of the saturation-water,which is used in calculating the weight of the bagasse, should be avoidable,but is a frequent of
source
The
error.
impossibilityof accurately sampling
usually precludes the factory control,hence given preference. 110.
The
the
Determination
samples a
of
canes
analysisin
just described should
method
of tlie
should
be
of the material
50 grams
Stretch
of the direct method
use
whole
to
piece of washed
be
Fil)er or Marc. Woody Transfer finely shredded. very beaker of 400 cc. capacity. a tared linen
"
over
the top of the
beaker,
An fastening it in place by a strong rubber band. opening should be left in the linen,opposite the lip of the beaker for
replenishingthe
water.
The
linen
is
designed
to
serve
218
Digest the cane-shreds
filter.
a
as
each
with
distilled
warm
pouring
off the
washing
back
adhere
to
solution into
the
water,
cane-shreds
and
further
loss of weight,
in
residue
time
beaker
the
not
hotter
of ten
minutes
than the
through
75**
C
linen,
and
of
fragments digestionswith
the
that
cane
water,
warm
minutes
each, in
off the
before.
Dry
an
liquid
as
100**
at
oven
until there
or
Use
times
five times, of ten
boilitig water, pouring beaker
two
,
each
filter. After
the
digest the
is
the is
C, until there
slightgain
a
no
the
over
smaller
weight in the calculation. weight of the residue multipliedby 2 is the percentage
previous weight. The
of fiber The
dried
a
the
in the
marc
or
cane.
fiber and
rapidity;therefore in
SUGAR-CANE.
THE
OF
ANALYSIS
desiccator
Preparatory
to
the
and
linen
attract
beaker
and
the
weight
should
Special apparatus
be
placed be
should direct
of the
one
on
employed
reduce
or
brass.
bagasse
is
form
made
The
diametel*
and
provided
to
body
gauze
material.
of Soxhlet*s
i!|J
hold from
bagasse FiQ.
57.
quantity of
shredded
The
above The
or
chamber
bottom
the
are
bottom
of a
80-mesh
wire-
is of
same
grams
the
this size will of shredded
larger weight of below
in
cylinder, B,
cylinderof a
inches
3.5
cylinder has
of
50 to 100
tractor ex-
of thiti copper of the extractor,
a
the A
Fig. 57.
support
cover
and
in
venient con-
long. Lugs
extractor.
removable
A
12 inches
inches
3
quired. re-
in order
error.
i4, is approximately
the
frequent are
is shown
simple
a
and
about
balance-pans.
be
sampling
apparatus is
proximate ap-
capable of comparatively large
cane
the
cooled
possible.
as
where
should
with
quantities of
or
be
fiber-determinations
operating
This
extreme
residue, their
and
This
to
quickly
as
beaker
with
should
contents
weighed
then
weighing
moisture
the
cane.
lugs is
to
A weighed provide drainage space. cane or bagasse in the cylinder B is
220
ANALYSIS
the
give
train The
the
per
78
per
=
11.72 The
method
agreement
then
cent;
the
per
fiber
cent,
per
has
writer
with
(1)
by
factories
purity
in
cent,
the direct
under
two
a
calculated methods
his
in
mill
in
indirect the
bagasse,
juice
purity, 100 "
bagasse;
25X.4687
cane.
number
fiber
superyision"
last
juicensolids;
the
large
determinations
purity
juice.
residual
the
is
the
second
sucrose
in
in
marc
or
the
from
The
residual
percent fiber
juice.
deducted
of
cent;
from
residual
bagasse.
the
25;
per
compared the
the
of
bagasse, 48
the
of
bagasse-roll that
calculated
moisture
the
4-T-.78a"5.13
=46.87
the in
of
the
is
illustrates
moisture,
cent;
be
example cent
bagasse
fiber the
from to
the
and
of
considered
Per
(6.13+48)
solids
juice
following
method:
and
sucrose
flowing
is
in
66lids
percentage
juice
the
the
the
of
sum
100
4
of
percentage
The
of
Juice
oi
percentage
SUGAR-CANE.
THE
OF
so
of method
by good of
analyses
fiber
(See
(2).
that in
also
he the
158t)
has
by The continued dis-
bagasse
ANALYSIS
Determination
111. of the
juice is be
may
used.
calculatingthe determined
as
be
may.
on
the
by
the
converted
table
of the
into
the
minutes
of
half
degrees
the
used
are
in
page
on
specificgravity pyknometer,
or
Brix
scale
482, according
by
means
to the
be
juice
floats,taking
ard stand-
not
care
in 94
and
help
to
juice
reach
of the
illustrated
and
juice should
that
be noted
for
suffice.
overflow
to
mechanical blow
above
the surface
on
the
froth.
The
juice,imtil it point to which
for the
juice, read
and
impurities,
the
remove
allowing sufficient time
few
a
cylinder, after the
the
farther; into the
the stem
to wet
from
minutes
ten
It is well to
be lowered
spindle to
directed
into
froth
siuface.
now
After
it sinks.
usually
lowered
it overflows
as
varies
required for this
it the
the
spindle should
of the
balance
hour, but
an
with
floating upon
of the
the
scale, or
bubbles, causing the
the
away
of the
convenient
more
readings
Westphal or
balance
purity.
Baum4
time
spindle should
carry
Westphal
spindle is the fiince its
hydrometer
an
selected.
The
to
escape
the
density
hydrometer, fill a wide cylinder to the brim of sample of juice and set it aside for the escape
air-bubbles.
The
of
means
or
The
the
using
with
Brix
477
page
on
temperature In
The
by
(96)
coefficient of
readings
Density."
determined
for this purpose,
hydrometer The
the
pyknometer
a
JUICE.
THE
of
usually
(94), though (95)
OF
temperature the
scale
as
The
in use
temperature Fig. 47. in correcting the observed
density. The
temperature
normal For
is
17i**C. is
example:
density
and
Let
correction made
18.15"
temperature.
with Brix
using
when
the aid of the at
24"
Referring to
C. the
spindles
table, be
the
table
whose
page
480.
observed of 221
correo-
222
ANALYSIS
OF
THE
JUICE.
tions, under the heading "Approximate degree Brix and the column Correction/' follow down 20, the degree Brix nearest 18", to opposite the temperature 24" C, and take off the
correction
been
making
to
Had
corrections
the
20"/4"C.
The
is given in page
ture temperabeen
have
is used
instruments
for
fj
18.15, mak-
degree Brix, C, the correction would Similarly,the table on page 490 18.59.
tanperature
in
standard
comparisons fot these instruments
table of
j
477. of
Determination
11^.
added
17 J "
below
subtractive.
at
be
must
corrected
the
ing
.44, which
the
Trne
Brix
Degree
or ^
Solids
Total
Prepare pumice-stone in and
sieve
Ir-mm.
the
thick
mm.
for bottles
the
on
pass layer of the
a
of
bottom
a
small
Method,^
size should
One
should
other
convenient
are
sizes.
two
perforations. Place S
Carr and Saiibom^s
by Drying.
a
I
"
pass
a
cular sieve,cirfiner pumice-stone 6-mm.
metal
dish ; lead
caps
inexpensive for this purpose.
and
thick pumice-stone 6 to 10 mm. such the first layer. Add a quantity of the juice to upon the tared dish and pumice-stone as will yieldapproximately In weighing the solution 1 gram of dry raattcT, a use weight in a waterweighing-bottle, Dry to constant hours. making trial weighings at intervals of two oven, in a vacuum-6ven be conducted The at about drying may of materials containing much 70" C. in case readilyoxidizable Place
layerof
a
the
coarse
mafcten
The used
divided by the weight of juice weight of dry matter and the quotient multiplied by 100 per cent of total
j
"=
solids. Method to
^This method using vacuum-apparatu3. from the author by that of C5ofurtonne,
differs in the Courtonne to
the water The and and
was
"
construction
heats
prevent
the
of the
bottles
the return
oven
in water, and
gested sug-
which
it
and
drying-bottles.
and
makes
re-evaporation,of
no
a
vision pro-
part of
i
of condensation. is shown
in
section,in Fig. 58, and thtt bottles double trap in perspective. The walls of the oven are filled with plaster of Paris, C; the bottom is also are oven
*
Bull.
46
Div.
Chemistry,
U.
S. Dept.
Agriculture,
p. 45.
DETERMINATION
double, and by
a
inside
OF
the
space
toy steam-engine the
oven
and
THE
TBUE
is filled with or
other
insures
a
small very
BRIX.
DEQBEE
air.
A
motor, unifonn
223
fan^ D, driven agitatesthe air temperature
in
all
paortsof it. The drying-bottles.A,
tubes
with
are
connected
by
means
of short
nected vacuum-pipe, E, which is in turn conwith an ordinary filter*pumpor other vacuum-pump. Each bottle may be r^oaoved by closing a cock G without at the disturbing the others. A small glass trap, H, shown right of the oven, in detail,prevents any moisture, from a
central
Fxo.
condensation
in the
tubes,from
58.
fallingback
into the bottle.
followingprocedure is advised: Dry a small quantity of piecesof pumice-stone in (me of the bottles;tare the bottle of and then distribute a weighed quantity oi about 5 grams The
All weighings should the stone. be made with juice over Insert a rubber the glass stopper in the bottle. stopper, with in the and the bottle neck of a glass trap, H, provided it with the vacuum-pipe, E, by means of a rubber connect tube. Heat the oven to 100" C, keeping the fan in motion. of 20 inches is usually sufficient. The calculations A vacuum as in the preceding method. are made
224
ANALYSIS
Materiab
JUICE.
THE
OF
containinglevulose should be dried
at moderate
The preferably in a vacuum-apparatus. risk of decomposition of the levulose is lessened if nearly all the water be driven off at a low temperature before heating
temperatures,
expel the last of it.
to
A
Convefiient
Vacuumroven,
^A conv"iient
"
apparatus
for
device shown in is the distilling drying materials in vacuo This consists of a glass dome fitted to a porcelain Fig. 59. with rubber vessel, the joint being made a gasket. The steamporcelain vessel is fitted into a special wateror bath.
Connection
by
bottom
means
of the of the the
under
of
and
dish
dish
A
bath.
capsule 85
factory^svacuum-system
pressure-tubing.The dishes
vessel porcelain
outlet
The
the
59.
Pellet's Method
center.
with
FiQ.
similar to that in
nickel
is made
heated
are
should
not
be
rest upon
the
to the
temperature placed directly
except this be provided with
water-trap
a
Fig. 58. for mm.
has
Total
Sdida.
in diameter a
central
"
Pellet
and
20
mm.
uses
a
deep
depression about
shallow at
the
one-third
depth of the dish and one-third its diameter. Freshly ignitedpumice-stpne,ground to pass a 1-mm. sieve, the border of the capsule,leaving the is distributed around central depression free. The capsule,including the pumiceand a small glassrod, is warmed, then cooled in a desiccator stone The material to be tested is placed in the and tared. depression and the dish is reweighed. In the case of juice, the
total
BEFRACTIVB
10
grams
This
be used.
may
distilled water
225
INDEX.
diluted with
is then
little
a
the
by by tiltingthe capsule it is absorbed distributed is now stone pumice-stone. The evenly
over
the entire bottom
and
etc., the material
of the
(about
testingmassecuite, grains) is weighed in the central
3
capsule.
In
depression and is then dissolved in about This
water.
solution
is absorbed
5
of hot distilled
cc.
by the
stone
and
is followed
with two additional manner successivelyin the same small portions of water. The rod is used to promote solution.
Finally the is dried added
is distributed
stone
in the
drop
A
oven.
to material
containing even method, Pellet makes
In another to which
sugar
tested
added.
at intervals
weighed
dish is assumed
other
Jossers Method.
"
is
time.
to
capsule containing the
The
and
it
when
pure
to be
is
sugar
to lose moisture
ceases
the
to contain
only dry matter. ^This method was originallyused
agriculturalwork. time
a
be
of
equivalent to that in the material
water
has been
should
acidity. paralleltest, using
trace
a
material
the
of ammonia
two
or
and
before
as
It has
slightlymodified
been
modification
The
in
of
from
Weil
and
Tempany
tain cer-
^
given here. A
No. stripof S. " S. filter-paper,
rolled into 2
X
a
tightcoil and
cc.
is placed in
a
cm.X2
58
is
cm.,
weighing-tube 12
cm.
thoroughly drying the paper, the tube is removed and weighed. The stopper is now
After
cm.
stoppered and 10
597,
of
juice is distributed
stopper removed
is now
over
paper.
placed in
a
The
tube
with
the
drying-chamber contained
chamber is heated with steam-jacket. The steam, while a current of air,dried by passing it through sulphuric acid, followed by travel through calcium chloride,is drawn ber through it by an aspirator. The moist air leaving the chambe passed through dr3dng-bulbs and the water be may collected and weighed as a check. Stop-oocks are arranged in
a
to
control
the
the aiiw;urrent
and
mercury-column
a
to
regulate
vacuum.
113.
Estimatton
Refractive
of
Index.
"
"
W.
"
J. Am.
the
and
^Tolman
I. Bui.
1912,
Chem.
Solids
Total
Smith's
'
12, 89.
Soc,
1906,
28" 1470.
from
the
investigations
226
ANALYSIS
showed
that
most
Geriach's with
found
that
the
Main, and closelywith
The
tables
GeerUgs, after another.
one
solids in
examination
materials
low use
of
solids.
as
correction
to
the
material
is
soUds
only
under
included
limitations, i,e,,in and
solids
agree
is affected
this is not
in
Smith,
and
Tolman
its
the refractometer
indications
accurate
He
refractometer
if the
Within
containing only soluble of non-sugars,
the
refractometer
insoluble matter
of the
^
acciu*atelythe products. Geerligs
temperature
The
Main
in refinery work.
solution, therefore
contains
in the estimate
very
first to
used
indicates
index
the
factories.
cane-sugar
by the
were
that
be
may
temperatures.
room
in all but
matter "
West
van
from
refractive
of soUd
content
and
hydrometer ccurections
the refractometer
use
equal percentage
refractive indices, also
same
to correct
error
the first to
was
the
table of Brix
small
in ^^solutionsof
sugars
composition have
JXHCB.
THE
OF
a
small
portion pro-
capable of giving contents, usually
by drying. The refractometric results with materials of low purity are usually intermediate between those by hydrometer and actual drying. The canequite
accurate
in massecuite adopt the refractometer analysis,must completely change his idea of
molasses
the suitable tiont
and
those
as
maker, in order
sugar
and
as
to
puritiesor
the
at least for
conditions
a
time.
These have
obtaining in Cuba
consideradeterred
applying the refractometer in the factories under his generalsuperintendence of manufacture. Three instruments, by Carl Zeiss of Jena, are used in the refractometric estimation of the solids in sugiur materials, the author
viz.:
from
(1) Abbe
refractometer; (2) immersion refractometer; (3) sugar refractometer, a specialform of Abbe instrument. (1) The Abbe Refractometer,Fig. 60, consists essentially of two flint-glass 1*75,cemented prisms A and B of index Nd The into a metal ing mountmounting, and a compensator. ^
be hinged at C so that it may of the liquid to A drop or two separated from the other. be tested is placed upon the poHshed surface of the fixed prism. A, and the hinged prism is carefully closed against it of
1 "
one
of the
prisms
is
Int.
Sugar Journ., 1907, 0, 481. Abt. in Chem. Archief, 1007" 15, 487.
CentnJbl.,
1008, 79 (1),80a
228
ANALYSIS
it is
range
for
suitable and
"3) The Abbe's in the
juicea
the
of
special tables
usual
instrument
and
has
dilTers from
and
the
glass forming
modified
the double
The the
interval
Tiie
comparator.
between
"
0 to
Abstracted
50
troEn
with
^"ecial
fonn
prisms
of the
the
of use
Abbe
optical nature
by
SchAnrock,
graduation
of the and
is uptm
in a
in the field of view.
of the scale read
divisions
tions Instruc-
dealers
a
quite
ai.
designed
cylindricalglass strip located
is
density.
the
this in the
prisms,
and
designed especially for
been
It has
eugar-induBtty,
a
types
of
range
supplied by
are
Fto.
having
other
T^TOcUmteler,' Fig. 62, is
augoT
instrument
JUICE.
the
than
accurate
more
THE
OF
in
percent^^ 1 per
Zeiu'
cent
inMnntiomi.
"rfdry and
Bubstanoe,
60
to
85
in
REFRACTIVE
0.5 per
'Rraduated 85
20"
Within
cent.
according
the
according
to
Main's
28"
is
engraved
or
The
62.
C,
refractomet"r The
upright
E
and
The
priamB, M,
N,
control
temperature (1).
The
covered very
prism with
dark-colored
for adjustii^ the
zero
observer
with
a
to
size in Fig. carries the
hinged telescope.
of the telescope are with
of the
Abbe
at R
window
is used
The
shown. for
arrangement
an
window
solutions.
instrument,
which
cap
is
when F
usually ing observ-
gives
access
of the scale.
Setlinn Ihe Refraelomeler. the
K
to that
This
D.
60
62.
is fitted with
the cap
is
standard,
which
hinge J
a
provided
similar
scale
from
one-third
iudependeutly
the handle are
and
temperature
in about
is fitted with an
the
60
to
the instrument.
upon
Fio.
eyepieceOK
0 table
I^e
table.
is shown
easing G, together with
The
from
mnge
Sehoiirock'B
to
229
INDEX.
"
the handle
Place B
on
the instrument the
left and
the
in front mirror
of
Sp
230
ANALYSIS
toward The
window
a
source
OF
or
JUICE.
THE
incandescent
an
of
light should
the
Sample,-"Open
electric
about
be
or
inches
18
lamp..
gas
the
from
mirror.
Applying
and
handle
B
surface
of the lower
the
JEidrop of the
place
prism with
glass rod should be used. after applying the solution.
prisma by solution
rod.
a
Close
of the
means
the matted
upon
smoothly rounded prisms immediately
A
the
that the so Regulationof the Light. ^Place the instrument of light. sides G are symmetrical with respect to the source Adjust the mirror to reflect the Ught through the frame of the mounting of tte prism M. Complete this adjustment by moving the hinged body of the refractometer as a whole. ^The eyepiece Ok Settingthe Instrument to the Critical Line. "
"
turned
be
can
of the
assistance the
the
over
and
entire range
handle
of the
First set to
K.
scale with
the
the
point
zero
of
the
eyepiece, arranging the mirror to throw a strong light. Then by rotatingK pass to the higher If need be parts of the scale,following with the mirror. the hinge, J. the entire body of the instrument turn on Up field the the certain at to a bright point middle; appears bounded by " beyond this point the bright part appears line,parallelto the division lines of the scale,which separates less intensely dark. the bright portion from more or one ness By a slightchange of the inclination of the mirror the brightof the field should be tested,while the critical line remains scfle
focus
stationary. the Scale.
Reading
Read
the cross-hairs. line
it.
crosses
In
dark
white
to
be
an
seen.
be noted
of
read
by
D
between
from
a
very
a
per
point of intersection of the point where the critical cent
be estimated.
must
the mirror
solutions,turn
over
R.
and
The
dark
and
a
very
the maker
as
brightpart has been
with
Viscous
each
of the
described
tables Temperature-correction
the scale.
Examining
until
the
field. Bring this line into (Coincidence and
of K
means
field will appear uniformly unpracticed eye and the critical line may even the telescopeand a fine limitingline will Rock
the cap
remove
with
the scale at
Fractions
observing very
eyepieceby
the
critical line coincides
the
not
^Tum
"
are
plied sup-
instrument.
Solutions.
"
Slightlywarm
the
prismsby
OF
DETERMINATION
through the mounting.
water circulating
solution
the
the
to
231
STTCROSE.
THE
Apply the
promptly make
prism and
observation. Notes
114. Solids.
is
in sugar-house materials
several
of
is due
This
make.
of
conditions
their
to
tendency
is advisable to
It
to
these
use
in
at
air-oven,the
an
same
some
moisture.
give fairly
that
and
conditions
average
If
under
occlude
to
all times.
the
is called upon
and
select methods
comparable results under
of
one
ready decomposition
to the
constituents
the
and
of the total sohds
unsatisfactorytests the chemist
most
Total
of
Estimation
^The determination
"
moisture
to
the
on
ducted drying is conweight of material,
the
!"-
the
perature temdish,and the same Eeating-period should be adhered to
size and
same
and at all times
for
a
kind of
a
given class
of materials.
A
perature tem-
"2.
/\
that is
suitable, e.g., to a high puritylarge crystalsugar is too high for a soft sugar of low polarization. The first requires a comparatively
high
temperatiu'e
occluded
perature
to avoid
the
Special
of
for
preserved with so
s
O
" "
"
low
very
"o
a u
the
off
tem^
u{
^
o
S
X
5
" -
sugar.
Sucrose.
tlie
This
Measurements.^"
applicable with
pipette,Fig. 63, is
have
juices that
lead.
subacetate
of
graduated
that
\
not
The
if filled to
corresponding with the observed (uncorrected) degree Brix, with juice, it wi'l deliver
mark,
52.096
i.e.,two
grams,
than
This
a
normal
pipette
was
carried
devised
by
C.
dealers.
stock
m
A.
in
of 5" to
25"
Crampton
and
the
"
sucrose
same
othe^
(52.096
dealers,and
the
Bpettoer,indepeitderitly and at about termed Ci'amptoa's or "Spencer's "
weights
of densities
range
Hqu*d.
the
be graduated for
two quantities grams), but it is usually 2-normal weight size,by for
weights of
normal
Evidently the pipette may
"
a
decomposing the invert
Pipette is
method been
other
Determination
115"
the
(105** C.)
and
water
to, drive
III "ft
the
uated gradBrix.
G.
It is
time.
pipette"
L.
by
'
I)
tbe
Fzo.
68
232
ANALYSIS
OP
JUICE.
THE
normal for the new be graduated to order Pipettes must which is used with the true 100 cc. flask. weight, 26 grams, These instruments, called sucrose-pipettes,are usually made with
long delivery-tube, but four inches long. With be supported by the flask
about may
chemist
free
noting
hydrometer,
Fill the
correction.
pipette draining, leaving the
while of
a
100-cc.
the
degree pipette with
Add
flask.
Brix
measurements
without .
juice to the
3 to 5
of diluted
cc.
(290), complete the volume thoroughly and filter the contents
the filtrate, using a 200-mm.
reading by
2
juice should
not
be
sufficient time
The
sucrose
the
should
pipette
by making
pipette
obviates
the
of
Polarize
polariscope The
sucrose.
thorough
age. drain-
in
connection
with
the measurement
after
observation.
of Schmitz's
that
water,
for
of the Brix
at the temperature filtration,
of the
used
be
may
dry-lead method
Home's
allowed
be
with
pipette by blowing,
the
expelledfrom
cc.
divide
percentage
This
tables, but
completion of the volume to 100 cc. be verified against calibration of pipettes should
involves The balance.
A
solution
of sugar
volume
it
dischai^e
of the.flask.
tube, and
obtain
to
sponding corre-
lead subacetate
100
to
temperature mark
degree Brix, and
solution
use
such
tl"e
in the
its observed
with
and
tube
a
analysis of a juice,proceed the density of the juice with a Brix
Determine
follows:
mix
tube
short
the
series
a
prefers
author
other
In
into
continue
to
pipettes. using this pipette
with
as
the
a
corresponding
to
a
an
in the pipette. degree Brix should be measured is correctly graduated it should deliver If the instrument
uncorrected
52;096
of the solution.
grams
advisable
It is not
these
pipettes with
liquids of a higher density than 25" Brix or of greater viscositythan cane-juice. These pipettes are usualV used in the analysis of miscellaneous samples of juiceand in the rapid testing of diluted massecuites pan
They
work.
solution 116.
Methods.
of chromic
to
and should
^The
molasses be
acid in
Determination "
use
for
guidance in the
frequently cleaned
with
vacuuma
strong
sulphuric acid. of
the
Sucrose.
General
necessityof adding subacetate of lead
to the
DETERMINATION
juice in sampling somewhat of the If
233
SUCROSE.
THE
OF
complicatesthe
measurement
sample for analysis.
formaldehyde
author
does
measured With
the
the
sucrose
agent proceed Determine
used, which
the be
the
of subacetate
solution
is
chloride
sample for analysismay pipetteor otherwise.
recommend,
not
with
mercuric
or
of lead
used
as
a
serving pre-
follows:
as
Measure
duplicate sample. the composite sample, includingthe lead solution;
subtract
the
volume
volume from
and
required
Add
Brix
of the
the
solution
calculate
juice to
calculated
the
of
lead
data
these
dilute the
to
volume.
degree
the
110
cent
total
the
of water
the amount
per
volume
from
of its
of water, and
original mix
the
juice,lead salt,and water thoroughly, filter and polarizethe The calculation of the pertube. filtrate, using a 200-mm. centage of sucrose is made with the aid of Schmitz table, 506.
page
Example showing Volume
of
Volume
of lead solution
juice and lead solution.
Volume Ten
per
of
cent
one-tenth Volume
The cent
2705
"
2580 of the
of the volume
cc.
juice
-"
of 2580
of water
cc.
125
used
juice
258
of lead solution
Volume
of calculation:
the methods
used
required to be added.
volume, i.e.,2705 + 133=2838 of the volume of the juice (2580 cc.). total
cc.
125
"
133
cc.
.
cc.
or
110
Degree Brix of duplicatesample (uncorrected) Polariscope reading.
18.0 60
'
It is advisable
acid
to
restore
to
the
acidulate normal
be present. that may is ascertained The sucrose
the
water
rotatory from
power
Schmitz
5 .
with
used to
peir
the
table
as
acetic
levulose
follows:
18, the Referring to the table (page 506), under the column nearest degree Brix to that observed, opposite 60, the whole of the polariscopereading, is 15.98; add number to this number 0.13, which is found in the small table opposite 0.5,
234
ANALYSIS
tenths
the
sucrose
JUICE.
in
be detennined
may
subacetate,as
lead
THE
completed polariscope reading. The in the juice. of sucrose per cent
the
16.11, is the
number, The
of
OP
Measure
follows:
100
sugar-flask, i.e., a flask graduated to hold add
complete the volume
usually 6-8 cc; acidulatingthe
solution
110
to
acetic
with
and
cc.
110
a
cc,
for the clarification,
of lead solution
sufficient subacetate
of juice in
cc.
100
with
stored
juice,not
a
previously
cc,
filter,and
acid, mix,
in The percentage of sucrose polarize the filtrate as usual. the juice is calculated by Schmitz table, as described above. In all juice analyses by these methods, requiring especial accuracy,
a
volume
the
lead
of the
be acidulated
should
should
correction
method
acetic acid.
with
by W.
made
be
method
This
clarification.
the
to
the solutions
D. Home's of lead
using finely powdered dry subacetate
*
due
error
and
(see 83) precipitate
analysis of the juice may
The
for the
made
be
requires no
measurements
juice. The
dry subacetate
as
lead
Home,
by
applied in the
when
of
described
is added
for
analysis of in
sufficient
portion of the juice for clarification,and aftei thorough mixirg and filtration the filtrate is polarized as usual. Approximately 1-3 grams of dry subacetate of lead
quantity
to
a
required for the clarification of
are
calculation
of the percentage
of
100
is
sucrose
of
cc.
by Schmitz's
originaltable, page 506, if the polariscopereading be divided by 1.1. 500.
page
lead
the
Schmitz's
method
This
the
precipitate in other
be used
must
eliminates
with
caution
for
error
due
processes
juices or
juice. The
to
contain
may
Home's
It may samples and
contains
so
volume
of
analysis, but it products contairing (See 84.) traces
of
damaged
much.
dry-lead method
control.
used
of
invert-sugar,owing to its reaction with levulose. contains but small Fully mature tropical cane levulose and often none at all,whereas unripe or canes
be
may
the
table,
be used does
is of great convenience in the storage of
not
little levulose
dilute
them.
in
factory
juicesin ing compositThe juice usually
that the influence
of
tLe lead
be
upon
the levulose error neglected. If necessary be may eliminated by the followingprocedure, but with the introducit may
"
Joura.
Am.
Chem.
Soc,
26, 186;
Int.
Sugar
Journal, 6, 51.
236
ANALYSIS
JUICE.
Methods.
Gravimetric
Sugars).
THE
OF
The
"
method
to
the composition of glucose tests depends upon the material, especiallyas regards the relative proportions and glucose. Three methods will be given. The of sucrose third are of general application and first and the second the juice contains but a very should only be used when few is not of glucose, which cent tenths of a per often the used
be
in
case.
Using Meissl
(1) Method lion
of
^This method
"
except juice as for polarization and
material
Prepare to the
as
the neutral acetate
that
Preparor by the
is recommended
products.
all sugar-cane
for
author the
the Solvtion,
Hiller^s Factors,
and
solution
a
of
quantity of the
of lead should
be
used.
the flask,add to the mark completing the volume on sufficient oxalate of potassium to precipitatethe excess of lead. Complete the volume, add a small quantity of dry the kieselguhr (diatomaceous earth) and thoroughly mix Before
flask.
of the
contents
Should
solution.
standing is
oxalate.
the
of
filtration should
five minutes'
since about full action
The
the
After
be
be
necessary
sufficient
filtrate not
not
ate, immedito
insure
time, filter the
perfectly clear, add
kieselguhrand refilter.
more
add
also
be
dilution as prepared without Add the minimum follows: quantity of Home's dry subacetate of lead to the sample of juicethat will suffice for clarification; follow the lead with sufficient dry sodium oxalate, in small portions with frequent shaking, to precipitatethe lead; solution
The
may
kieselguhrto promote
filter.
The
glucose
filtration and
All traces
of lead must
selection
of
a
tests is of very
comparative
tests
were
refinmes
thoroughly
and
be removed. for
deleading solutions for great importance. A large number of made the direction of the by author reagent
in the selection of methods factOTies and
mix
for
under
in the laboratories
use
his control
and
with
the
of
the
result
shows that the oxalates of potassium that present information and dry oxalic acid are more suitable deleading and sodium
agents care
than
to avoid
time and
the
must
carbonate
inversion
must
be allowed
or
sulphate of sodium.
be used for the
thorough filtration should
with
oxalic acid.
Special cient Suffi-
precipitationof all the lead
follow.
GRAVIMETRIC
237
METHODS.
The next step in the analysisis the estimation of
suitable
a
mined quantity of the material for the test. This need be deterbut once in the manufacturing season, and afterwards be readily varied as the maturity of the the quantity may advances. cane Prepare a series of large test-tubes by adding
above
and
4
1, 2y 3,
5
of
cc.
the
successively. Add
(!397)
to the contents
about
two
Measure
times
20
this tube
tube
and
described
as
Soxhlet's
heat
to
solution
boilingduring pare Com-
precipitatesto settle.
supernatant
the volume into
contained
with
mark
of mixed
cc.
the
prepared
liquid in each tube and has the lightesttint,but is distinctlyblue.
which
that
note
Allow
of the
color
5
of each
minutes.
the
solution
of the
flask and
100-cc.
a
deleaded
solution
dilute
that
it to the
3 is selected; No. example: Tube of the originalsolution,or if the second method 3X20=60 cc. of preparation is used, 60 cc. of juicein 100 cc. The volume be mult' plied by its specificgravity of juice measured must
ascertain
to
For
water.
its
on glucose-pipettes,
the
these measurements
making
in
provided
It is convenient
weight.
to
Spencer's
use
in principle of the sucrose-pipette, (115). These pipettesshould ibe
series of
The four, advancing by 20 grams. calibration of the pipettes should always be checked against of known degree Brix. a solution The
a
Reduction
let's solutioa 25
of the
cc. cc.
to
the
alkali
of the
cc.
solution,into
solution.
Measure
"
copper
400-cc.
a
50
of Soxh-
solution
and
and
add
beaker
of the beaker
the contents
Heat
cc.
perature boiling-point,taking four minutes to reach this temand continue the heating with very slightebbulition
during add
Oxide.
(397) i.e.,25
of the sugar
50
Cuprous
to
minutes.
two
100
At
the conclusion
of cold recently hoUed
cc.
of the
heating-period
distilled water
and
diately imme-
filter and
collect the cuprous oxide,using one of the described farther on in connection with the various
methods processes
All
the
of
the weight ascertaining
details
of the
method
and
conducting the reduction
that
the
results may
of copper.
of
preparing the
solution
to strictlyadhered be comparable and approach the absolute must
be
The beakers should be of Jena or gluc6se content. similar glass, and all be of one size,preferably not larger than
400
cc,
and
of uniform
thickness
and
diameter;
The
238
ANALYSIS
boiling should addition The
and
of cold water and
"
The
crucible
of
and
filtration
the
the
filtration than
(a) Provide
the
Joint
and
used
suitable
of
The
the
of
and
washings funnel
i inch
These
The
at
The
rubber should
cross-section.
be The
a
cost
rings
are
of pure
funnel
of
the
results
and
65.
the crucible itself filtration.
by
few
a
of
carried soft
the
of
funnel
prompt
walls
upper
edge
The
readily made
be
holder
thorough
so
care,
otherwise
prevent
may
Bugar-factory mechanics entjrely satisfactory.
Mse,
With
Sargent
upper
Fia.
be of the proper
any
size.
quite
satisfactory.
are
with
the entire porous crucible be thtvmay
crucible, but, with
dealers.
.
funnel
permit
not
washing
parallel.
use
of the Spencer
be
may
of the
doee
be
Other
given tot
are
oughly washed.
Spencer
crucible, ^
Gooch
modification
a
funnel
wall
brass
of the
the'analy^s.
of
the Spencer
the
rim
dum Spencer funnel (Fig. 64) or Sargent's aluncnicible-holder (Fig. 65). The
a
60"
will trap
Metailic
to
ware.
funnel
must
prompt.
the
at
the
alundum
latter is
holder
be
filtering crucible
with
stage
with
of alundum
in the absence
alimdum
as
this
should
Caiculaltan
or
bottom
He
only Juat appuent.
the
of
simplified
greatly
methoda
but
of making
of
JUICE.
Redvd,Um,
method
instead
THE
violent
invention
Spencer'a
have
be
not
FiUration
Copper.
OF
of
one
cents,
the
funnel
in stock
rubber, and
is placed in
a
the
and
is
must
by of
A
the
about
suction-filter-
GRAVIMIlTRtC
ing device
such
flask
meyer
with
filter-pump with
the
of their
The
a
of
should
copper
washing
with
only
be
"
Alundum
uidyticHl lose
weight
of
lamp
a
with Ui
preparatory should
copper
be
68,
in nitric acid
washed
with
and
itself
be
followed
crucibles work vety
ol
on
the
slowly
msy
be
(sctory ia
Bubojtide
to
in the
hot
half
filled about
may
reduction
is collected
distributes
washing
the
after
precipitate
thoroughly
on
tborou^
water.
Immediately this
washed
thoroughly
metallic
or
by solution
use
be
in the flame
Fia.
aft"r
filter-pump
efficient
very
a
The
multiple-effect evaporator,
require
be dried
oxides
removed
by
communicating
pipe
a
Erien-
heavy
a
is obtained
suction
through
the
crucible
and
The
DSe.
ot
The
in
or
large filtering area.
alundum
water
tubule.
preferably
or
enicibles
'
account
hot
side
vapor-pipe
alundum
in Fig. 66,
is shown
as
239
METHODS.
alundum
full
during
the
walls
by moistening for
tubstituted sad
due
to
The
crucible.
the
oxide
platinum the
in
and most
laborHtoriea. aetion
and
is
should
the
acricultunil
glucose work,
crucible
filtration. of
copper,
crucible
The
water.
of
of the
oxide subThe cru-
of tfa" These
alkaU.
240
ANALYSIS
cible with
pure
crucible
an
in
OF
alcohol oven
JUICE.
expedite the drying.
Dry the the flame of a lamp, cautiously over is ultimately to in which the copper
or
to
according to the form Proceed by be weighed. (b) Wedderburn^s
THE
of the
one
followingmethods
of Reduction
Method
to Metallic
:
Copper
J
"
to simplest of the methods involving reduction and its results are nearly as accurate metallic copper those as
is the
This
in hydrogen. Bend and equal to reduction by electrolysis the wires of a pipe-stem or silica triangleto form a tripod crucible. Place the tripod in a support for the alundum beaker
metal
the bottom
thg
of
beaker,covered alcohol
the
beaker
with
to
alcohol
oxide
The
metallic
copper
it from
of the
plate
hot
to
necessary
in the
a
beaker
The
beaker.
after
moment
let the
vapor
the
tripod and
replace
instantlyreduced object of
be
setting
fire the flames
them
upon
and
vapor
The
take
after
removed
cool for three the
from
is to prevetat
should
with
cover
of alcoholic
should
alcohol, after
of
warm
let it cool
the
introducing the
crucible
and
crucible.
readily extinguished by blowing the
the
down
remove
faint redness
If the alcohol
fire to the alcohol.
on
atmosphere
to very
carried
is almost
of copper
in the
cooling the crucible are
Place
plate and
the flame
disappears;
firmly to the walls
adheres
hot
a
Cover
1 centimeter
serve.
been
place the crucible
cover.
will
have
may
almost
until the redness and
vessel.
depth of about
a
watch-glass,on
a
cover-glass. that off organic matter the cuprous oxide; remove the
the
metallic
condense the under its vapors side of on the crucible to full redness, to bum Heat
until
the beaker
to
Denatured
alcohol.
with
convenient
other
or
ing cover-
from
the
crucible. or
reduction
four to
It
is
minutes avoid
Should the crucible become of the copper. with pure alcohol and cold, it should be moistened
oxidation
re-
quite this be
cooling in a desiccator the crucible is weighed and the weight of copper is ascertained by difference.
burned
The
off.
whole
copper
After
plating is
Journal
Ind.
and
Stanek, Z. Zuckerind. Chem.
Zeit. Chem.
as
good
method
Wedderbum's "
but
operationconsumes
Eng.
may
Boehmen,
Repertorium,
or
six minutes
that obtained
as
Chem.
five
be 7" 610.
32, 497; 21" 324.
the
by electrolysis.
conducted Original Votocek
and
and
with method,
a
Gooch Vladimir
Laxa, Abatract
is.
GRAVIMETRIC
crucible, but may
ehow
this
from
is
ware
occluded
to be
error
small
very
conTenicnt.
more
the
jui(", but
An
ash
from
and
usually negligible. The
farthra' "tfthe glucoee is ii;iven
calculation The
tiie alundum
enter
error
241
METHODS.
testa
an.
alcohol-burner. Fig. 67, ia suitable for beating
Barthel
crucibles. Method
(c) EUdrolytic oxide in
.cuprous
crucible
the
alundum
an
method, except
bum's
need
Iiet 4
tared. the
acid.
Fallow
wash-bottle
and
nitric
Should
of the
any
through
dissolved small the
'
Tbs
Coarse
of
and
in
oxide
of
52-meah
coppnr-wiie
cDnnectioQ
with
gauie
the
of
copper
be
must
used the
the
and oxide
filtrate.
drop by diop
of the
jet of the
latter hot
crucible
upon
platinum
must
be
be reduced
a
and
this
100
re.
aetvt
platinuRi
1 inch
as
wire.
a
be
to
a
Deporit as
gauze *
a
filtrate
filtrate
platinum-gauze probably
from
the
approximately
nould
acid
method
Transfer
wetted
thorou(^ly.
the
repass
are
water
conveniently
may
oxide.
electrolyticallyupon
cylinder
a
remain,
it to
in Wedder-
washing
fall
Wedderbum's
the
dilute
with
walls
oxide The
as
copper
beaker
a
red
instead
copper
Form
the
the crucible.
metallic
to
acid
the
67.
the a"id
wash
described
After
oxide, being careful that all parts the
by
as
Collect
receiving-veeselfor
Fia.
the
Soiuiwm."
glass funnel
a
be
not
of concentrated
cc.
crucible
that
thoroughly, change
very
Nilrie
in
follows: in diam-
tathode.
A
242
ANALYSIS
OF
THE
JUICE.
by 1.5 inch long. Connect the cylindersubmerged in the solution with the positivepole of a battery or use the directwill be described, and connect as lightingcurrent reduced anode with the negative pole,and electrolyse a platinum-foil eter
with
a
and
of 10 amperes
current
Rotation
minutes.^
from
copper
It to
a
time
to time
little anmionia
to
should
copper
cylinder within 10 to 15 anode during the reduction
the
should
solution
rapidity. The
its
increases
of
The
the
completely depositedupon
be
4 volts.
be
tested
for
by withdrawing a drop and adding neutralize the acid, then acetic acid drop of ferrocyanide of potassium
acidity and finallya solution,using a white porcelainplate to hold the solutions. this solution no longer reacts for copper, i.e.'y does not When the ferrocyanide is added, without when turn brown cutting to
off the
electric current, withdraw
the
acid solution
with
a
time replacing it with water. large pipette, at the same Repeat this operation until all the acid has been removed, then
the current,
break
alcohol
and
minutes. trace
a
in
then The
of acid
remove
ether, and
current
dip the cylinder in
dry
it in
be
not
must
remains.
and
discontinued
cylinder is
The
for
oven
an
now
pure
few
a
long as weighed, its deposited. so
weight is due to the metallic copper is direct current, this When the factory lighting-circuit be regulated by an ordinary rheostat or by a simple may device (Fig. 68) and be used in the reduction home-made to increase of
metallic
copper.
descent Separate the twin wires M (Fig. 68) leading to an incanis indicated in the figure them as lamp, and connect with the regulator. The body of the regulator,C, is a glass with sultube nearly filled with water phuric slightlyacidulated wire terminating in a A is an insulated copper acid.
platinum wire sealed in the tube C; B is a movable glass wire the lower which tube through end extends; a copper with a platinum wire E sealed into the of the wire connects tube
and
the upper
end
with
a
binding-post for connection
lamp. The wire D leads to the anode or cathode and of the electrolytic A to the opposite pole. apparatus A small tube is passed through the cork in C for the escape with
the
"-
ri)---
"
J. Ind.
,!,_
and
Eng.
Chem.,
2, 195,
R.
C.
Benner.
..
TIT
-
---
"
.
|"
244
ANALYSIS
platinum dish, the
THE
or
JUICE.
berrigdeposited upon
copper
platinum
a
cylinder. Soxhlet
A the
Gooch
tube, Fig. 69,
filter
crucible.
This
glass,6 inches long, into
be
may
filter consists end
one
used of
instead
of hard
tube
a
is sealed
of which
of
tubule
a
diameter for inserting in the long, of convenient such as shown in filtering apparatus stopper of a pressure Fig. 66. A perforated platinum disk A^ A\ Fig. the bottom, 69, is sealed into the large tube, near 3
inches
to
support
the
Prepare as
manner
asbestos-felt filter.
an
Gooch
a
small
fimnel
oxide
from
filter-tube
filter and
the
in
use
weigh
it.
same
Place
a
in the filter-tube to prevent the cuprous
adhering
asbestos-felt with the
its
to
moisten
Wash
all of the
described
in (a).
water.
filter
walls,and
the
tate precipi-
Dry th^ of pure dry hyprecipitate,then pass a current drogen time the through it, at gently heating same onto
-A
the
oxide
cuprous
burner, until metaUic
reduced 6d.
and may
the methods Methods Wedderburn
of
as
with
the
the
oxide
Cool
the
weigh it.
Bunsen
a
is reduced in
a
to
the
current
of
The
text-book"
Oxide
Copper
are
accurate
more
Weighed.
is
oxide.
Of
^The
"
to metallic
of reduction
electrolyticmethods involving the weight
of
weight of copper also be determined volmnetricallyby
the
method
fiame
copper
of the various
which
in
all
state.
hydrogen Fio.
for
copper
than these
the
and
the
methods
latter
methods, (a) should only be used for materials very free of organic other than the sugars. matter Method (") when carefully conducted
is almost methods.
Gooch
by forming
a
and
an
the
felt in
a
very oven
as
It
crucibles may
(a) Prepare
as
an
accurate
is obvious
the Wedderburn
as
that
either
or
trolytic elec-
alundup
or
be used.
Gooch
crucible
thick asbestos or
on
a
hot
to
receive
felt in it. iron
the
precipitate
Dry the crucible
plate; cool and
weigh
Immediately prepared is completed, filter the contents of the beaker through the the beaker and crucible, using a filter-pump, and wash precipitatethoroughly,transferringall of the latter to the crucible.
after
the
reduction
Care
filter.
wash-water
of
ether.
with*
Place
the
thirty minutes, then The weight of the
Uttle
a
of per copfiltrate. Follow
the
alcohol,then in
crucible cool
into
pass
suboxide
neither
that
particlesof asbestos
nor
the
be observed
must
245
METHOD.
GRAVIMETRIC
it in
with
desiccator
a
oxide X. 888
cuprous
and
water-oven
a
few
a
and
weigh it. weight of
the
=
drops dry it
reduced.
copper
(b) Collect
the
and
crucible
in
redness
a
muffle
furnace
Heat
or
a
oxide
the
Gooch full
to
oxidizing flame of a fifteen heating for about
the
the crucible in
alundum
an
in the
or
Continue
Cool
minutes.
in
thoroughly dry it.
burner.
Bunsen
oxide
cuprous
desiccator
a
and
then
weigh it
oxide is oxidized to quickly as is possible. The cuprous is very cupric oxide, which hygroscopic. The weight of cupric oxide X 0.8 the weight of copper.
as
=
CalculcUion
of
Hitter's Method, Cu
Let
P=the
IT
the
=
ihe
"
weight of the factor
used
sample in the
and
obtained
50
cc.
of the
determination;
for the
from
of copper
the
table
for
the
version con-
invert-sugar;
to
approximate absolute
weight of invert-sugar Z;
=
approximate
of
=
ii, relative
"=
ZYrz^
hy Meissl
weight of copper obtained; polarizationof the sample;
solution F
Percentage of Glucose
"
the
"
the
cent
per
=
invert-sugar =
j/;
lOOP "
"-
100"12=/,
,
,.
^
number
relative number
,
for sucrose;
for
invert-sugar;
CuF =
per
cent
of invert
sugar.
W Z facilitates to
readingthe vertical columns; and the ratio of
/, the horizontal columns
of the
table,for the
the factor (F) for the calculation Example. grams
of
The it (W)
of copper
of a sugar polarization are equivalentto 0.290
purpose to
ing of find-
invert-sugar.
is 86.4, and gram
R
3.256
of copper.
246
ANALYSIS
OF
THE
JUICE.
"*-.%
Then:
lOOP
8640
"95.1*/2;
86.4+4.45
P+y
100-i2"100-95.1=/"=4.9: i?:/"95.1:4.9.
By
table
consultingthe
column
headed
column
headed
Where
these
CuF
:
GnaX
meet
W
to the ratio of R we
find
"
"
o
AND
horizontal
/, 95.1
:
4.9.
which
51.2
..
per
cent ^
THAN
MORE
p.
"
FACTORS 1 PER
^ of mvert-sugar.
THE
FOR
CENT
OF
TION DETERMINA-
INVERT-SUGAR.
735.
show that this method Experiments in the determination good degree of accuracy of glucose in cane juices. (G. L. S.) "
to
factor
the
_.
=4.56
rtgg
KILLER'S
Zeitschrift,1889,
Note.
the
vertical
o.^oo
OF
I
Z, 145, and
the
calculations:
.
=
that
seen
.290X51.2
-^liT"
MEISSL
to
5 is nearest
columns
into the
enters
is nearest
150 95
it will be
be used leas than 1
may
of
with per
a
cent
DETERMINATION
247
REDUCING-SUGARS.
OF
"
(2) Gravimetric
Place Methodj using Soldaini^a SoltUionJ 100 Soldaini's solution (29S) in an to 150 cc. Erlenmeyer flask; boil five minutes; add a solution containing 10 grams of the material, previously clarified with lead if necessary, the excess of lead being removed with oxalate of potassium; boil
"
five minutes.
Having the
the
completed and
flame
boiling always
In
add
reduction,
100
cold
cc.
immediately through a Gooch in the precipitate by copper the
collect
described
oxide
cuprous
244.
in
the
use
naked
the
remove
distilled
flame.
flask
from Filter
water.
the crucible,and determine the electrolyticmethod, or filter-tube and
a
reduce
it
as
The
weight of the metallic copper multiplied by 0.3546 gives the weight of the invert-sugar. It is very exact, and that invert-sugar is claimed that this method be
can
on
page
determined
within
to
(3) Gravimetric
.01 per
with
cent
of Sucrose
Determinaiion
certainty.
and
Glucose.
"
glucose by the Meissl and Hiller method (1); determine combined invertand the invert the sucrose (89) and glucose by the reduction method given on page 188. sugar Determine
the
of
Determination
119.
Methods.
Volumetric
cose).
(Glu^
Beducing-sugars "
^Volumetric
methods
of
factories determining glucose are usually used in cane-sugar results of their rapidity,but when accurate account on very are required,the gravimetricmethods are preferable. imder the same If the analyses are always conducted ditions conof heating, of dilution,containing-vesseland method
by the volumetric methods are comparable. ^Transfer a definite (1) A Modification of Violette's Method. weight of juice to a sugar-flask and clarifyit with a solution of acetate of lead. of lead Precipitate the excess the results
"
oxalate
with
solution
of
to 100
potassium
in small
excess
and
dilute
the
Filter off the
precipitate. calculations are simplifiedby the use The of 5 grams, or A sufficient quantity a multiple of 5, of the juicein this test. iDf the juice should be used, if practicable,to give a burettecc.
reading of approximately
20
in
the
titration
about
to
be
described. The
of
measurements
the
standard
solutions
for
.
1
Trait6
d'analyse
des
Mati^res
Sucr^ea,
D.
Sidersky,
148.
this
248
Such
mort
are
process
burette
mouth-piece The
tube. a
conveniently
burette, designed
a
The
to
OF
ANALYSIS
point
at
reagent a
mouth-piece solution
shown
syphons
end
is drawn the
released.
burettes. in
ia shown
Fig.
70.
applied at the of
rubber
the
into the
burette
zero-mark
The
automatic
with
by Squibb,
the
little above is
made
by suction
is filled
JUICE.
THE
and the of
excess
the
into the reservoir, leaving
back
filled to the zero-maric.
the burette
JIL Jl
The solution
by
test
is made
(296)
9 inches
as
into
long,
a
and
follows:
Measure
large test-tube, dilute it with
10
cc.
1.5 inches 10
ec.
of
Violette'a
in diameter
of water.
Heat
DETERMINATION
solution
the
to
add
lamp,
boiling-pointover
few
cubic
249
REDUCING-SUGARS.
OP
naked
the
centimeters
flame
of
a
of the
prepared juice, and boil two minutes. Repeat these operations until the blue color almost disappears,taking care to add the juice little
drop
little-as
by or
a
two
at
this
point is approached and then only a time until the blue color disappears. After
a
the
first
boilingof
the
liquid a few seconds, after each addition. for
is convenient
minutes, it is only necessary
two
timing
the
just disappears, filter off
using
copper,
convenient
Wiley
a
portion of
a
of the
inch
for
test
filter-tube
piece of
a
other
or
form
linen
is
stretched
over
into
water
and
by mouth-suction
this tube
using
whijch
In
is of
small
diameter
tube
into
of
to
In
is
the
then
shoulder.
A
a
this
One
end is
and
dipped
asbestos,
with
of
film
a
of this filterthe tube
perforatedplatinum disk takes In usingthese the place of the linen,as indicated in Fig.71,b. the solution is filtered through the asbestos film by tubes mouth-suction and with the Wiley filter is poured from the asbestos
the
must
liquid then
and
long. lamp and
finelydivided
modification
Knorr's
a
is covered
linen
pieces of
filter end
the
suspended
from
inches
ten
wood
in
asbestos.
by
of
tied
in
bore
block
washed
place.
made
are
a,
in the flame
is softened
tube
pressed against
the
color
the
filter.
glass tubing one-fourth end
sand-glass
When
liquid to
the
Knorr-Wiley
or
Wiley's filter-tubes. Fig. 71, .
boiling.
first
A
boil
to
test
a
solution.
be
wiped expelled by
With
off the
the
end
blowing. nitric acid
Knorr
of the The
filter the
tube, and
tubes
after use,
the
should
dilute
chemists Many and place it on
a drop of the solution prefer to remove The piece of end-reaction filter-paper.
a
precipitateremains with
water.
the
center
the filtered solution around
In
whatever be
must a
in
10-per
tested cent
way
the
of
the
moistened
spot,
it.
filtered
solution
is obtained
it
This filtrate is acidulated with for copper. solution of acetic acid and then a drop of a
dilute solution
very
then
be
dipped into very thoroughly washed
with
and
be
of
ferrocyanideof potassium, 20
grams
tion colorato it; a brown salt per liter of water, is added indicates the presence of copper, and if this color appears.
of the
250
ANALYSIS
of the
more
OF
THE
JUICE.
solution be used.
juicemust be added decreases in intensity until
sugar
The
the color test carefiilly as all of the copper is reduced finallywhen very
further coloration.
followed, after
a
there
will be
no
The
be readily progress of the test may little practice,by noting the appearance of
precipitateand the color of the supernatant liquid. The test should be repeated, adding nearly enough now
the
of the
proceed
then
at
before.
as
of the
end
the
at
solution
sugar
The
all of the
reduce
to
once
should burette-reading
operation. The
calculation
copjjer; be made
is made
as
follows: TF="the
Let
weight of juicein
1
of the solution;
cc.
burette
B^ihe
reading; "-the required per cent;
X
0.05X100 then
x^
a;
is .05 gram
W
When or
.
^^^
the
=
reduces
formula
to
rc"=
"
5
reciprocalof the burette-reading multipliedby of
table
A
the
reciprocalsis given
page
on
484
for
use
"
"
100.
in
calculations.
these
multipleof 5 grams of juiceis diluted to 100 cc. for this test, the reciprocalof the burette-readingmultiplied multipleof the per cent of glucose; by 100 is the same tion, If 5 grams of juicein 100 cc. should give too strong a soludilute to 200 cc, 300 cc, etc., and multiplythe reciprocal of the burette-reading etc by 200, 300, is instead of weighed, the measured If the juicesample still be used, but the value of x table of reciprocals may be divided by the specific must gravityof the juice. Pipettes the principleof the sucrose pipette (115) may be used on the juice and obviate the necessityof dividing to measure gravityor weighing the sample. by the specific If
a
Violette's This
of each are
be avoided
may
copper
solution
and
the
of these
other
on standing. decomposes somewhat by preparingtwo solutions,one of the
of the alkali.
solutions
are
In and
used
making the
10
a
cc.
test 10 cc.
of water
omitted.
(2) Soxhlet^s
analysis and
volumetric
make
a
method.
"
preliminarytest
juice for described in (1),to
Prepare the as
252
in
OF
ANALYSIS
100
sufficient
add
water,
CO.
clarifiQation,dilute
to
200
of the filtrate add
cc.
of
lOO
cc.
100
sponding cc., corre-
of the material, for the reduction. grams Soldaini solution five minutes fiame over a naked 10
to
in
To
for
solution of carbonate
concentrated
a
filter.
mix, and
cc,
*"
lead
of
subaoetate
mix, and filter;of this filtrate take
of sodium;
Boil 100
25
JUICE.
THE
cc.
Erlenmeyer flask,then add the sugar solution,little by additional five jninutes. little,continuing the heating an an
Remove
flask,add
the
precipitateon under
Wash
are
felt in
a
Gooch
Add
Three
the
to
collect the
crucible, filtering
precipitatewith hot
longer alkaline.
no
sufficient.
usuallv
are
the
cold distilled water,
cc.
asbestos
an
pressure.
wash-waters
100
until the
water
four
or
washings
oxide
cuprous
25
cc.
two acid, and sulphuric acid, i.e.,the standardized heat -three crystals of chlorate of potassium, and gently or oxide is completely in soluti"Hi. This until the cuprous
normal
operation should solution
the
with
by difference volume use
the
a
half-normal
a
solution
lettingthe sulphate of solution
ammonia
the
ammonia
with
800
of this solution 2
of
cc.
by
solution
to
of
of
cc.
It is
Mix
200
to which
cc,
sulphate of sufficient
it one-half
titration,
the
strength
been
added
solution, against
acid
water
Prepare
of commercial
has
copper
sulphuric acid, adding the make
cc.
this
preferable to
this
Determine
water.
from
indicator.
the
as
:
for
Titrate
determine
and
up,
ammonia
act
titrating25
disappears. Add
color
acid used
fallows
as
flask.
or
reduced.
copper
concentrated
a
normal
the
of the
of copper
amount
beaker
a
alkali solution, and
standard
volume
the
in
conducted
be
until
to
the
the
blue
ammonia
normal.
titration
proceed as follows: Oool the of the copper-sulphate solution resultingfrom the treatment oxide with sulphuric acid and chlorate of potassium ; cuprous In
add
making
50
cc.
of the
addition
long
The
after
as
ammonia
lead
The
acid, but
blue
reappears
solution. color on
should
acidulation
be
with
removed acatic
Titrate
stirringthe is not
(G. L. S.).
the each
solution
saturated.
color of the
by precipitation with acid
with
disappears with
which ammonia is any is saturated, the ammonia
there
all the
When
^
half-normal
sulphuric acid.
normal
as
the
potassium
liquid
oxalate
is
longer blue but
no
reading, which Cach
cubic
is
a
faint green.
Note
the
copper
equivalent
centimeter
253
REDUCING-SUGARS.
OF
DETERMINATION
to
the
burette-
precipitated.
sulphuric-acid solution is Multiply the weight of equivalent to .0137 gram of copper. by .3546 to obtain the weight of invert-sugar. To copper simplify the calculations multiply the burette-reading by .1124 to obtain the per cent invert-sugar. General
120.
Olucose and sugar
the
of
Remarks
the
on
(Beducing^sugars).
Determination
of
Geerligs, Pellet,Edson that a part of the reducingother chemists have shown is carried down with the lead precipitatewhen subof lead is used
"
The writer, clarifyingthe solutions. acting on the suggestion of C. H. Gill,^used acetic acid to and Pellet decompose the lead levulosate in optical work acetate
and
Edson
normal and
of acetic acid in
use
cose glu-
expressed a preference for the use of the lead in preparing solutions for both glucose
of
tests.
of lead must
traces
proceeding with have
the
also
acetate
sucrose
AH
advised
afterward and
tests
in
been
the
be removed
the solution before
from
Several
reduction.
deleading agents
used
As a result of an by various authorities. extensive series of experiments recently made for the author, in the interests of The Cuban-American Sugar Co., he has or provisionallyadopted oxalate of potassium or sodium * that states dry oxalic acid in deleading. Bomtrager sodium
with
The bonate carsulphate is preferable to the carbonate. is Very generally used in deleading and of sodium
manipulation it may give good results. The experiments quoted, however, indicate that the oxalates oxalic acid are preferable. It is advisable to use a' little or very
careful
kieselguhr in conjunction with the oxalic acid or filtration. The to promote experiments mentioned
its salts
that
of
the
deleading agent
of the volume
the mark
to
percentages of glucose are be immediate. of the
Ample
be added
may
on
small.
time
The be
must
in advance
the
J. of the
3
Zdt
Chem.
a^-gew.
filtration should allowed
Soc, April. 1871.
Cham ,
pletion com-
flask,provided the
deleading agent.
"
showed
1892, 333.
for the
not
action
254
'
ANALYSIS
OP
Determination
121. Normal
Ash.
Dry
"
10
platinum dish, then temperature, and
of
the
grams
of
incinerate
afterward
JUICE.
THE
at
a
Ash.
Carixmaled
"
dull-red heat.
low-red
a
carbonates should
heat.
wei^t rise
never
ash consists
largelyof alkaline quickly absorb moisture from the air, it in a desiccator and be weighed as quickly
which cooled
be
the
low
a
The
should
or
teured
juice in a shallow the residue, first at
of ash X 10 =per ash. cent of normal In this determination the temperature above
Ask
As
possible.
as
This
incineration- may
be
accomplished
the flame
over
of
electric or An lamp, but it is preferable to use a muffle. tory. gasolene muffle furnace should be used in the factory laboraa
The
ash is
carbonated
only in research usually determined and not in commercial work analysis. It is difficult to burn sugar-house products to obtain a large quantity or sugar of the carbonated ash for analysis. The usual method^is conducted
follows:
as
The
material
platinum dish until it takes fire and swells the to
greatly and
is washed
with
hot
to the
dish and
bum
evaporated contents
to are
a
large It
out.
dish.
a
After
The
powder.
is
fflter and
powder thoroughly
filtrate is reserved
The
filter and
platinum dish and
now
to
paper
water.
The
treatment.
is rubbed ashless
an
in
sufficiently charred, it is transferred
and
upon
extracted
is
been
glassmortar
a
the flames
is difiicult to confine to the
has
material
is heated
insoluble
matter
are
for further
returned
The ffltrate completely ashed. dr3rnessin the platinxmi dish and the are
heated
then
to low
redness
to bum
off
remaining organic matter. of juice in a shallow tared Sulphatedrosh, Dry 10 grams fused silica or platinum dish. Add a few drops of pure concentrated
any
"
sulphuric acid the
carefullyover carbonized
mass
flame porous
to
moisten
of
a
and
the
lamp. converts
residue
The the
acid
and
heat
renders
carbonates
it the
into
sulphates. When a
muffle
the charred heated
temperature but
care
must
to
may
be
be
mass
ceases
redness
to
and
bum
higher than
observed
not
swell,transfer the dish for
to fuse
off the the
carbon.
carbonated
the ash.
to
The
ash,
DETERMINATION
^^^^e ash be
\'"in The in
OP
should
reheated
heatingin the
weight
is
before
for the
This
of
number
and
often
(See 136.) is shown
"
A
narrow
drilled in the walls ", holes are heavy platinum c, df Fig. 73, and
a, at
wires
inserted.
are
for
supports the
dishes
the
is
is
is
in the
cut
a
upon
heated
Fig.
72.
Fig.
73.
Fig.
74.
which
dome The
i, Fig, 74.
at
placed
and
form
tion. incinera-
during the
rest
muffle
muffle
wires
X, y, z, upon
Wj
hcde
A
These
trough of platinum-
a
foil.Fig. 72,
of
imates approx-
be determined
^A convenient muffle MujBte for Incmerationa^ is made in Figs. 72, 73, 74, and follows: as slot is cut the length of the bottom French of clay-muffle, Fig. 72, a
.
The
usage.
factor should
factory and each material.
centage, per-
stead sulphates in-
follows beet sugar
A correction
the
calculatingthe
formation
variable
very
25 per cent. for each
decompose sulphides. reduction of the sulphates
of carbon.
is deducted
a
and
to
in the
compensate
correction
sulphuric acid
"sulphated-ash" method, one*tenth
ash
of carbonates. true
256
NITROGEN.
with
muffle
formed
customary to
the
the presence
of the
TOTAL
moLstened
in
sulphides are
In
be
THE
suitable support
by
wing
top
burners.
and
Nitrogen "
of the
Determination
123.
Total
method
the
Total
Albuminoids.
termined Nitrogen. ^The nitrogen is decombustion by the moist tions, modificaof Kjeldahl with
as
"
of Official
adopted by the association
Agricultural
Chemists.^
(1) Th3
digestion. 10
capsule, xure brought approximately .7 gram The
sulphuric acid.
position,and
of the
cc.
"
into
oxide
mercuric is
heated
placed
below
on
the
a
Journ.
Am.
'Adapted
Cbetn.
from
Soc.
Bulletin
16,
small
a
and
20
frame
in
cc.
'
46, Div.
Cfaem.
U. S. Dept.
the '
"
151.
Agrto.
of clined in-
an
of boiling-point -
"
in
with digestion-flask
550-cc.
a
of flask
juice,dried
256
acid
for from
added
acid
boils
the is
badly,
froths
of the
contents
small heat
further
briskly. No
JUICE.
flask have
frothinghas cea.^
until
or
a
The
prevent it.
to
THE
minutes,
15
5 to
If the mixture be
OF
ANALYSIS
piece of paraffinemay
is then
a
the
is
attention
become
until
raised
required till clear liquid,which
color. The pale straw from flask is then removed frame, held upright, and, while still hot, potassium permanganate is dropped in carefully in small quantity at a time, till, and after shaking, the liquid remains of a green or purple color. of the (2) The distillation. ^After cooling, the contents
coloriess,or
only
has
very the
a
"
with about 200 cc. distilling-flask of water, and to this a few pieces of granulated zinc, pumicestone, or .5 gram zinc-dust,and 25 cc. of potassium-sulphide its contents. solution are added, shaking the flask to mix flask
are
transferred
Next
add
from
nitrates,
50
cc. or
to the
of
saturated
a
sufflcient to
alkaline,pouring it down mix
not
with
at
the
with
once
should
condenser, which
The
all of the
generally contain U3ually requires from
40
Tive distillate is then
titrated
the
calculations
which which
will
by
otherwise
one
a
blank
ary
escape
the
has
hour
the
passed
operation
and
half.
a
ammonia,
Previous
to
that
and
use,
experiment with
nitrates
flask
tin, mix
This
standard
usual.
partially reduce
might
with
as
be tested
reagents should
to
it does
of the distillate
cc.
ammonia.
minutes
made
are
Connect
of block
first 150
strongly
that
so
distil until all ammonia
acid.
will
be
solution,free
reaction
the
solution.
acid
the
into the standard
over
make
the side of the flask
by shaking, and
contents
caustic-soda
the
sugar, present
are
notice.
nitrogen, ^The albuminoid
Albuminoid
mined nitrogen is deterof Stutzer,and the percentage
"
by the following method of nitrogen is calculated to albuminoids
by multiplying
by the factor 6.0.^ Prepare cupric hydrate as follows: Dissolve 100 grains of pure cupricsulphate in 5 liters of water, add 25 cc. of glycerol, of sodium dilute solution then and hydrate until the a ,
1 uae
W. of
Maxwell, the
analysts. albumin"Hd
La.
factor He
bases
matter
6
Expt. instead
Sta. Bui.
38, 2d
of 6.25
this factor
6
of cane-iuioe.
on
as a
Series,
is customary
study
of the
p.
1375,
by
advises many
composition
the
plantof
the
OF
ACIDITY
257
JUICE.
THK
liquid is alkaline; filter;rub the precipitateup with water containing 5 cc. of glycerolper liter,and wash by decantafiltration until the washings are tion or no longer alkaline. Rub the precipitate with water ing containup again in a mortar 10 per cent of glycerol, thus preparinga uniform gelatinous that
mass
be
can
of
quantity
the
measured
with
out
cupric hydrate
per
pipette. Determine
a
cubic
centimeter
of this
mixture. Place
boiling;'add containing about 0.5
heat
to
cold, wash
filter when
bes^er, add
a
100
of water*
cc.
quantity of cupric hydrate mixture of the hydrate; stir thoroughly, gram a
with
precipitatefrom
the
juicein
of the
10 grams
the
cold water,
and, without
filter,determine
removing,
nitrogen according
of total nitrogen, given for the determination adding sufficient potassium sulphid solution to completely The filter-papers used precipitateall copper and mercury. method
the
to
practicallyfree
be
must
is rich
examined
of
centimeters
adding
the
serves
to
nitrogen.
from
alkaline
in
phosphates, add
concentrated
a
alkaline
the
decompose
mix
done, cupric phosphate and
not
free
substance few
a
of alum
solution and
cupric hydrate,
If the
cubic
just before
well
by stirring.This phosphates. If this be alkali may be formed,
dissolved be partially protein-copper precipitate may in the alkaline liquid. is always ^Normal cane-jiiioe 123. Acidity of the Juice. of the The acid. acidity is usually expressed in terms alkali required of decinormal of cubic centimeters number of preparing 100 cc. of the juice. The method to neutralize and
the
"
a
alkali solution, preferably caustic
normal
by diluting 100
normal It
using
logwood of
an
1
In
a
case
a
of the
excess
the
very
solution
assumes
cDnvenient
as
paper
be
logwood
of
cc.
difficult to
is very litmus
should
it
decinormal
The
417.
page
on
to
solution
when
If litmus
sensitive neutral be
may
purple
or
alkali.
proceed
of sorghum-cane
as
used a
In
violet
an
heat
A
the
indicator.
a
water-bath
20
drops The
presence
titration
Measure
on
is used
few
color in the
making
in
reached
paper
paper. as
follows:
5"*W,
cc.
neutralityis
indicator.
the
prepared from
of the latter to 1000
note
an
is
soda, is given
cc.
it is
juice
10 minutes.
258
ANALYSIS
into
beaker
a
one-tenth
few
and
5
in
juice
in
normal is
the
additional
bonation, limeitcontainQi
is
juice
in
If
very
treatment and
little,
a
the
as
at
acidity
before
test
dish,
separate
with
neutrality 100
per
the
in
except
of
cc.
special
made
by
Juice. the
The
methods
same
carbonation
factories,
few with the
tigations, inves-
defecation.
Clarified
the
with
neutrality,
carbonic
analysis,
juice
the
acid, to
that
as
is
process
used,
precipitate
the
which
an
first all
the
of
receive
must
after
of
analysis
"
juice. case
in
required
of of
by
the
alkali.
not
control
juice
burette-reading
product
is
Analysis
clarified
the
this
little
approaches time
to
decinormal
test
or
124.
the of
terms
time
from
Multiply
record
above
The
the
it
solution.
logwood
by
of
drops
liquid
drops
lew
a
into
solution,
the
As
add
and
Measure
caustic-soda
stirring.
JUICE.
dish
it.
to
normal
constant
THE
porcelain
a
solution
logwood
of
a
or
OF
car-
of
the
260
SIRUP,
the
MASSECUITES,
This
sugar.
of the
are
non-sucrose,
is
with
the
with
the in
a
Since with
having such high cpecificgravity, as carbohydrates, infhience the density marked degree. very
compared
sugars
of
ratio
massecuites
indicated
the
these
remarks
as
Brix
from
percentage
hydrometer, and
caution
similar
and
spindling
condition
number
hydrometer Thus, for example, if
dissolved in two
higher
dissolved
in
only
of the
and
one
one
salts in the
to
similar
a
molasses.
been
yet that at
tioned. men-
calculated
another
tion. dilu-
final molasses
a
this solution be this
This
spindlingwill been
difference is partly
contraction This
be
spindled,
part of the-molasses
solution of sugar
of the
partly
from
calculated from
part of water.
contraction and
water
and
solution calculated from
part of
one
be had
it would
than
not
ascertained
water
of the molasses
the
to
parts of
a
has
is different
dilution
one
the
Brix
that
density (Brix) of
at
massecuites
maintained.
analysis are
of
is another
The
of the
density of the product, must be accepted then only for comparative purposes when
the
conditions
There
calculations
that
solid9 in
total
apparent
or
molasses, from
with
apparent
is
sugar
larger.
degree
from
increases
sucrose
commercial
as
the
between
tions determina-
the true by ascei*tained by actuallydrying the material,
It is evident
with
the
to
non-sucrose
difference
the
percentage,
due
in the
as
molasses.
of total solids,as
becomes
cane-
hydrate regards the carbofor the inorganic salts which are
stage of the manufacture,
each
as
and
the
removed,
be
far
so
salts
These
the
MOLASSES.
specificgravity
same
true practically
bodies, but is not associated
AND
on
dilution
of the
tion solu-
difference would
be
dealing with a pure sucrose instead of molasses. solution Obviously massecuites and to be directly spindled,hence too dense molasses are one obtained numbers dilution by and must accept spindling The chat are at best only comparative. true solids of a observed
though
even
final molasses
may
indicated The
methods
by
one
be from
were
5 to
dilution and of
dilution
10
per
cent
below the
bers num-
spindling. and
spindling,given in this
customarily used, and the results must not be considered absolute,but only as suitable for comparisons. book,
are
those
SIDERSKY's
GRAVITY.
SPECIFIC
Specific Gravity.
127.
261
METHOD.
Method.
Sidersky's
i"
boiled applicable to samples of massecuites blank and to molasses, but not to grained strikes. The required is a 50-cc. sugar-flask,a suitable apparatus is
method
This
heating arrangement, Grind
stopper. the
into
massecuite
object of the
When
3
or
not
as
the
to
sample hot
a
cool
air, then
few
flask in cold
water.
then
the
reduce
and mark.
Weight
of flask and
''
''
it
' '
''
of the funnel
of
of the
top
on
material
the
shown
in the
to
molasses
295
66
and
ti
(I
water
"
It is very account
direct
.
.
the
to
.
molasses
94.672
:
*'
grams grams
91.570
(also its vo'mne
in cc.)
3.102
grams;
of the
molasses; 66.295-51.4136, the required specific gravity at 17i" C. find the degree Brix of the table, page 482, we
By means corresponding on
water.
=46.898, the volume
50-3.102
46.898
and
and
J" C,
grams
25.276
of flask,molasses ''
17
molasses,
91 .570
the molasses
''
contents,
followingexample
empty
''
of the
escape
weigh the flask and
and
are
very
.
Weight
heat.
the
by immersing the
temperature
flask
calculations
The
a
latter to within
facilitate the
to
room
the
cylindrical lamp.
a
carefullyso of the flask with molasses. Keep
temperature
into
water
run
the funnel
minutes
Dry
fillthe
and
Remove
It to the
distribute
to
a
emery with a
it in
set
lower the stem
is
the neck
smear
for
funnel
carefullywith the flame of
cylinderis
of the mark.
cc.
Fill the
molasses, and
quite warm, into the flask, lift the glass rod 2
glassrod
a
glassrod with moistened
or
iron
the material
with
stopper.
a
iron support, and heat The
funnel
a
of the
end
one
funnel, to form of the
sample
and
to
this
specificgravity to
difficult to of the
method
heavy molasses
for
make
a
the
by this method the only It is, however,
specificgravity
of
that is used. iZeitschrift, 1881,
79.6".
test
correct
air-bubbles.
be
p.
192.
massecuites
and
262
128.
paragraph volume
be used
depend
The
of
convenient
This
and
mze
cubic
strip which
foot
cylinder to
and
certain
a
or
metal.
should
be
will,
gallon
or
partly
in
ade
supports
The
ground
should
from
be
in
rim a
provided, of
glaas tube
a
of
true,
side
to
shown
capillary, as
a
of
metal, CC,
extends
of
cylindrical veasel
a
preferably
of
previous
is shown
of
cylinders
of the
A
of the unit volume
the
conHista
ia the
weight
the
this measurement
making
for
Massecnlte."
desuribed
selectbn
whether
upon
in Fig, 7S.
section
Volume
to ascertain
of massecuite.
device
any
Unit
a
MOLAB6BB.
AND
of Sidersky's methoii may
course,
A
of
Weight
modification
of
UASSECUTTEB
SlBTJFj
the
drawn
TT'.
Pins
'
PP'
the
m
in
rim
of the
in
insure
the
in
run
until
cautiously the
instant rises
previous determination the
of the
bottom
this volume with
volume
ascertained
if
plainly
76.
should
of the
and
that
the
massecuite,
and
colored
of the
tube
be
may
be
of
and
more
A
cylinder
to
With
water.
cMnplete
to
is
weight
the
it
used.
massecuite
with
compared
The tube
is
with
of the
very
by capillarity.
the
required
water
that
it
water
made
position,
the
noted
volume be
in
masee-
is reached.
into
readily
may
tube
cylinder
burette
a
reaches
water
distance
some
This
from
the
always
with
lo
of
strip
latter
capillary-tube
water
fitting
Fill the
point
the
the
the
position.
same
cuite, place the then
in
replacing
approximately
to
FiQ.
holes
corresponding
metal
cylinder and
the
readily of the
material. In
making this at
made
the It
in
which the
the
evident
be
that
and
and
correction
be of the temperature to
be
expansion
of
product
for
the
are
applied. this
are vibrations of machinery Degree 139. Apparent
Dllntton
should of this
measurements
factory,
cylinder should is
the maasecuite
test
method
cannot
be
Uaed
\"iiere
felt, Brix.
SpllndUDg.^Di3solve
DetermlnatloB a
weighed
quantity
by of
DILUTION
material in
263
SPLINDLING.
AND
Transfer equal weight of distilled water. its a portion of the solution to a cylinder and determine degree Brix. Correct the degree Brix for the temperature the
error
an
described
as
number
by
This
material. method.
on
2
is the
The
ascertain
to
several degrees lower
commercial
the
and
number
apparent
Brix Solids by Befractometer. or Apparent has been described method of using the refractometer
The
"
page
are
this method
those If the
material
sample closely approximate
gives results that
be crystals of sugar these must refractometer only indicates the solid
the
calculation
solution.
is made
solution
When
is indicated
as
methods
Dilution
paragraph.
clarification of the
contains
is in
that
and
by drying.
dissolved,since matter
dilution
When
225.
unnecessary
the
the
factory usually ling. by spind-
130.
on
rected cor-
of solids is
percentage
or
than
multiply the degree Brix of
the
customary
Brix
true
and
222,
page
involve
by working with
very
concentrated
farther the
by spindling. The
of similar methods
employed in
on
contraction
error
sr
is
this error
be reduced
may
lutions.
If
volume
a
solution,for example, the is not the sum volume of the mixture of the volumes, but is smaller number, and the concentration is higher. It is, a in hydrometer methods that the same as therefore,necessary of water
definite
be
added
to
conditions
molasses
a
observed
be
that
results
the
be
may
comparable. In the event
testinga highly colored material,the method
of
of Tischtschenko
equal weight and determine
may
of of
the
a
as
solution
high
refractive
of solids in the mixture The
used.
be
Mix
of pure
by
means
percentage of solids in the
as
with
of known
sucrose
concentration
index.
material
the
is
Ascertain
position com-
practicableand the
of the table material
an
on
percentage 492.
page
is ascertained
by
solution from deducting the per cent of solids in the sucrose The principleof the method twice the solids in the mixture. of calculation
for other mixtures
dilution formulae If necessary
is made
to as
is the
same
as
that
of the
(307). dilute the follows:
material
with
lation water, the calcu-
264
MASSECUITES
SIRUP,
Let
x
MOLASSES.
AND
the required percentage of solids
=
(Brix);
weight of the material
used; weight of the diluted solution;
TF== t^;'^
then Wx^bw
and
True
131.
method
x^bw/W,
Brlx and
of Carr
recommended
are
method
and
Sanborn this
for
1
use
the
method
vacuum
material.
of distilled water
in order
to
distribute
latter
both
methods
small
quantity
In a
The
(IIS)
the
In
weighing the material, dissolve it in
after
Drying."
by
determination.
the
of
gram
Solids
Total
or
it evenly
the
over
pumice-stone. In Carr and Sanborn^s method, dilute the of about 20 to 30 sample in a weighing-bottleto a content dry matter, using a weighed quantity of distilled water, and transfer a weighed portion of the solution con" tared 1 gram dish. of dry matter to the taining about per
of
cent
Dry the sample and 112, and the
to
the remarks
the percentage,
in the
same
directed
as
in
paragraph in regard
decomposition of levulose. Determination
132.
of
note
calculate
determining
molasses
or
the
of
Sucrose."
the of
percentage
sucrose
depends upon
majssecuite
The
in
the
method
sample
a
of
purpose
of the'
analysis. the
For of
the
various
the
apparent
cent
per
especiallythe
absolute
the
percentage relation,however, between
The
required.
factory, for the control
manufacture,
work, crystallizer
is not
sucrose
of
processes
and
vacuum-pan of
of the
ordinary purposes
and
sucrose
the
degree Brix,
purity, is frequently needed, but not with The most a important great degree of accuracy. in is to adopt certain connection with this work point
the
coeflficient of
conditions similar
For
of
analysis
and
materials, otherwise the
of
purposes
produced in the various
adhere the
to
molasses avoid
error
results
them
with
will not
be
all parable. com-
comparing the commercial sugar of the and periods crop determining
the total loss of sucrose, conrniercial
to
it is very samples be and
to
essential that
the
final
analyzed,using every obtain
absolute
or
caution pre-
results
as
DETERMINATION
OP
THE
265
SUCROSE.
.
nearly the "
the
processes of analysis will permit. considerations for what methods may
as
above
factory tests" be given:
and
Determination
of
of the
modifications
In
of
view
be termed
Clerget process
will
massecuite
molasses
or
after
and
solution
the
of
little
a
in water This
and
Brix.
15"
approximately
factory tests.
sucrosCf
dilute
Dissolve
"
the
solution
the
is
to
usually quickly the degree Brix experience. proceed as in 115, using the sucroseplished accom-
Ascertain
pipette. dry-lead method
Home's
used
be
may
to modify the usually advisable of the high levulose account content
method
it is
Dilute
molasses.
the
massecuite
shghtly to
on
and
massecuites
of
molasses
or
tests, but
in these
between
Brix; add sufficient dry subacetate of lead for than is necessary. the clarification, being careful to use no more ing. Also add a little dry sharp sand and mix thoroughly by shak15** and
16"
The
clarification is most
glass cylinder which while shaking. hand a
50-55 to 55
up
massecuite
or
to
a
conical
these
compensate
of
cylindersmarked
at
"struck"
a
and
spoon
of the
measure a
measure
of
dry
sand;
of the
cylinder by shaking and then add a of powdered oxalic acid (dry) and another of kieselThe quantity of acid must be insufficient for the precipitation
extended
The
200-mm.
table, page 494, and opposite the degree Brix
number
measuring
purity by Home's
most
to
a
100-cc.
of all the lead. the
a
in
make
the solution.
purityof
molasses; add
the contents
guhr.
acidityand
point and to modify the method Fill the cylinder to the mark with the diluted
follows:
measure
Home's
in filtrate,
of the
cc.
reading by one-tenth
to have
approximately the
mix
50
this solution
polariscope reading and
It is convenient
lead from
Polarize
Refer
find the coefficient of
as
to
dilute acetic acid to
the
increase
the
under
Filter and
water.
dilution.
the
for
^ith
cc.
and
tube
may
fiask,add
cc'
conveniently effected in a small be covered by the palm of the
to
cover
Shake, filter and
table,page wider
a
range
526.
The
polarize. Find table should
of densities
at
the
be
places
used. coefficient of tests.
purity is all that is usually required
It should
be noted
that
on
account
of the
in
large
266
i!ie coefficient is lower
dilution of the material otherwise
MOLASSES.
AND
MASSECUITES
SIRUP,
than
it would
be. Method
Clerget's
133.
for
Sucrose.
This
"
is often
"double-polarisationmethod," since two polarizations made, one before and the other after inversion,in are order to eliminate the influence of the invert-sugarthat may be present. Cane-sugar products usually contain the three termed
the
rect (+), dextrose (+) and levulose (" ). The dipolarization is therefore the resultant of the polarizations sucrose
sugars,
of these three sugars.
originalClerget method, 50 cc. of the sugar solution inverted by the addition of 5 cc. of concentrated chloric hydroare acid in a 50-55-cc. flask,with heating to 68" C. during fifteen minutes, followed by rapid cooling. This method quires rethe use of Clerget^sconstant, 144. The calculations In the
made
are
in the
as
described
modifications
The
usually used in been
following modifications
view
a
Modification.
The
"
slightlyfrom
factory conditions:
those
of Herzfeld
Dissolve
65.12
molasises in water, contained
65
grams
for
dilute clarification,
true
a
to the
of the filtrate contained
acidityand dilute
to
to 55
temperature, and
the
tube
mm.
and
a
in
normal
through
error
in
to
meet
500-cc.
a
Add
are
cane-sugar
massecuite
of
(Mohr) flask,or of lead
subacetate
mark, mix and filter. To 50 50-55
a
flask add
cc.
cc.
acetic acid
Polarize this solution,noting
cc.
reduce
have
given here
grams
flask is used.
cc.
risk of
instructions
or
if
those
are
simplifythe work.^ man) Herzf eld's (Official Ger-
to
or
Method.
Clerget's
modified
reducingthe
to
decompositionof levulose
following pages
method.
All the modifications
work.
cane-sugar
devised with
134.
in the
of the
the. reading
solution.
to
Correct
terms for
the
of
a
200-
dilution
increasingthe reading by 1/10. Enter this number ."Ni the direct polarization. Delead a portion of the originalfiltrate by the addition of It is not necessary that all the lead be dry sodium oxalate.^ 55 cc,
to
removed Cross
1
in
in
recommends
preparing
uoed
in
filtration
deleading,but
excess
may
for
the
both of
be
the
the
use
of dry
direct
quantity
difficult.
the
Lt
and
quantity left should be oxalic
required ^xpt.
acid
invert
Sta.
to
as
a
deleading
polarisations.
precipitate
Bui.
the
135, p. 29.
If
very agent this
is
lead, the
268
SIRUP,
duoe.
Herzfeld
Prof.
MOLASSES.
AND
MASSECUITES
requested
International
the
mittee Com-
Congress Meeting of the International of Applied Chemistry) to revise his table of constants, as several investigatorshave reported apparently high results York
(New
in its
Steuerwald
use.
^
has shown
that
Herzfeld's
constants
these numbers give high results and has redetermined table: published them in the following convenient STEUERWALD'S
(Hersf eld's
The
Steuerwald^s
constants
to the
and the
Inversion
is calculated
sucrose
substitute
invert this for
by
Method).
Herzfeld's
follows:
as
Select
formula, using a
constant
polariscope-readingand *'
constant"
invert-reading is always
1
CONSTANTS.
OF
TABLE
Archief., 1913, 21, 1383;
Int.
and
minus
Sugar
in the in
temperature
formula. cane-sugar
Journ., 1914,
sponding corre-
16, 82.
Since'
work,
CLBRQET
divide
the
S
of the
269
METHOD.
direct-
and
invert-readingsby the minus half the temperature in centigrade degrees constant and multiply the quotientby 100. tion, Example: Direct polarizaThe 30.4; invert-reading,"17.9; temperature, 24" C. at 24" is 143.06, therefore constant corresponding to "17.9 Per cent sucrose substituting these values in the formula: sum
48.3
30.4+17.9
"
~
="
=36.85.
=
143.06-12
131.06
inversion
The
within
complete wlien
and
there is certaintythat
the
is
above
20**
always above
sixteen hours
as
twenty-four hours C.
temperature
four-hour
20** a
is sufficient.
with
be avoided
heating may of freedom
lose.
The
flask
shown
in this The
with
tainty cer-
of levu-
modification
acid
FiQ.
76.
of the
section is for the acid and
the sugar the top mark
Method
by
inversion
increased
with
and
body of the flask
The
"
inversion
special inversion in Fig. 76 eliminates pipette
solution,the middle completes 100 cc. 135. Clerget's wald.*
venient. con-
convenient
measurements
method.
twenty-
that, when
destruction
from
fact
short
so
most
this it appears is available, the tedious
a
ture tempera-
The
period is usually the
at
in
period
From
time
at the
inversion is always
The
temperature.
room
conducted
be
may
serves
to
measure
Modified
as
is conducted
at
Steuer-
temperature
room
strength. A specialtable of
is
constants
required. Prepare the solution Measure add
and 1.188
sp.
30
and as
hours
two
of the
been
filtrate into
if the temperature is between
if above
25" C.
polarize,observing the have
in the
preceding paragraph. a
100-cc.
flask
hydrochloric acid of 1.1 sp. gr. (acid of diluted with an equal volume Set of water).
aside three hours or
cc.
described
of
cc.
gr.
50
as
described
Dilute same
in the
20" and
the solution
temperature
to
25** C. 100
cc.
conditions
preceding paragraph. The
^Archie!,, 1913, 21, 831; Int. Sugar Journ., 1913, 15, 489.
270
MASBEGUITES
SIRUP,
followingtable of the
Herzfeld
consianits
fonnula.
of the normal
terms
before
AND
TABLE at
be
reduced
to
tion of solu-
cc.
of
in I2I9 except
burning
use
normal
to
30
Ash."
acid.)
cc.
Proceed
as
is directed
2 to 3 grams
of the material.
is facilitated
by dissolvingthe
alcohol and
in diluted
with
the
from ash
CONSTANTS.
OF
temperature
room
Determination
material
readings should
with
making the calculations:
(Inversion
The
in connection
weight of the material in 100
STEUERWALD'S
136.
be used
must
The
MOLASSES.
then
incorporating 50
mg.
be deducted from oxide, the weight of which must the ash before the calculations. Or, incinerate with benzoic of zinc
Dissolve
acid. cent
alcohol.
caramelize it at
25
Moisten a
of the
grams
the
low heat*
acid in 100
sample with Add
2
cc.
For From
of 90 and
water
per
then
of the benzoic solution
and, after evaporating the alcohol,incinerate red heat
cc.
at
incipient
in the muffle furnace.
proceedas sulphated-ash
is described in
3 to 5 grains of the material is
a
paragraph l^Sl. suitable quantity for
the test. 137.
Acidity
and
Solutions of massecuites
Qualitative Tests." molasses are usually so dark-
Alkalinity. and
CRT8TALLIZED
that
colored be
Buiaaon of
cc.
flask; add of
The
the ether
and
In the
be
of the
138.
applied
of
of
the
Masseculte.
Method.
^"TWm
method, will be
sugar
and
BURftr
30
Weigh
taiting
it to
transfer
place
fused
over
Mix
acid.
sulphuric
to time
This
the
distilled
in
of this metliod
for
He
eorallin.
staining in he
uses
uses
copy. micros-
several
and
glass
a
desiccator
a
strong
or
mixing
molasses
in
the
formly uni-
glycerine work
preparatory and
quires re-
Upwards.
in plug of dry filtering-cotton
a
funnel
of the
apparatus
transfer
Fig. 77; funnel
with
the
fifteen minutes Place
be
be.
con-
crystalsare
distributed
may
faw
until the
separated, and
eorallin
aa
the
well
case
must
solution
Repeat
time
the
as
The
drous anhy-
sugar
chloride
from
solution.
of
of pure the
the dish
calcium
the
few
masse-
a
glass dish
a
glycerine intimately
rod, and
a
first described,
grams
equal weight
an
glycerine. and
50
to
wait
cc,
tallized Crys-
then its application to cui["r
10
in alcohol.
in
raw
and
tlien
upon
of the
the
Sugar
to
gloss-atoppeiied
success
prepared
as
drop
one
Estimation
Kara
red
the
quality
of the eorallin dissolved
drops
reacts
or
author
the
upon
of
fer Trans-
neutral.
soluble eorallin
Instead
"
yellow
a
and
cannot
rise to the surface.
and
alkali
or
a
dissolving the material
must
largely
alcohol
the
in
experience
depends
to
method:
eorallin solution
separate
its color to
used
water
to
of acid
excess
changes
material
the
alkaUnity
or
followii^
Agitate thoroughly
ether.
slightest
of
the
of neutral
drop
for the ether
seconds
for acidity
tests
271
HASSECniTB.
IN
advises
'
solution
n
one
washed
a,nd
usual
the
made. 25
8UOAR
and
the
re-laco
shown
mixture
the
'Zeit.
The
mixttire
should
Rubeniucker-Indugtrie,
the
Filter
cover.
off the glycrine solution, using pump.
to
in
a
be
Pio.
77.
filler-
protected
31, 500.
from
the moisture
272
MASSECUITES
SIRUP,
of the air
during filtration by
chloride of calcium
a
at the top of the funnel-cover
shown Since
the
in the
with
contact
moisture
air should
moist
tube,
as
figure.
glycerine absorbs
anhydrous
great rapidity, its
MOLASSES.
AND
with far
so
as
possiblebe avoided. Polarize obtained
above
following formulae:
P~per
cent
p^sper
cent
x^
attached
sucrose
in the
sucrose
in the
and
V
crystallizedsugar
the
as
by the
*
in the molasses
sucrose
x="
calculate
and
glycerine filtrate
the
of
weight
normal
the
P"
x
to the
crystals;
sugar;
raw
glycerinefiltrate; the
=
of
percentage
crystallized
100-p sugar.
Example.
Polarization
"
of the
tion 95.6; polariza-
sugar*
raw
of the filtrate =6.75.
=7.55; "^^1^X6.75
"=
the
percentage of
view
In
present in cuites
cane
the
and
95.6-7.55=88.05
of
crystallizedsugar. the large proportion of glucose usually to masseproducts, to apply the method
sucrose
work, should
p, in accurate
P, and
x,
be
This by the modified Clei^et method, page 266. of Karcz' method the case in the following modification
ascertained is not
by Perepletchikow: Transfer with
an
normal
the
indefinite
described
above,
weight of the Karcz'
Wash
the
funnel
from
the
the
the percentage
of
apparatus
"
cane
Zeitschrift
"
Zapiski, 1894, 18, 346. Manuel-Agenda
293.
This
as
filter ofif the
and
and The
the
wash
crystals into
a
polariscope reading is
des
method
usually requires double
products.
j. Zuckerindustrie
1
*
glycerine,
crystalsin the massecuite.
Duponi'8 method* polarizationwith
anhydrous
treated
crystalswith repeated portions is no Remove longer colored.
polarize them.
sugar-flask and
massecuite,
apparatus
glycerine until the filtrate
of
of
quantity
to
glycerinesolution.
p.
*
Bui.
Bohem,
Jan., 1895.
Association
Fabricants
de
des
Chimistes, 12, 407.
Sucre, Gallois
et
Dupont,
1891,
SUGAR
CRYSTALLIZED
Heat
example
of
quantity
a
500
massecuite 85*^
to
grams
and
such should
centrifugal
shown
be
the
Calculate
molasses.
Fig. with
possible
as'
Polarize
in
covered
thoroughly
as
sugar
is
as
by
of
for small
a
sieve
of
flannel.
the
crystals
crystals
the
Dry of
means
the
percentage
in
sugar
The
87. thin
massecuite,
the
polarization, the
purge
,
centrifugal,
known
of
C.
573
MASSECUITB.
IN
the trifugal. cen-
and
by
the
the
foUow-
formula:
ing
Let
x="the
of
weight
crystallized
sucrose
in
one
of
part
massecuite; a
p
"=
polarization
-polarization
p^s=
polarization
the
massecuite;
of
the
crystals;
of
the
molasses.
d'
d
.'.
of
"
and
x"=
crystallized
100x=the
".
sucrose
in
100
P-P
of
parts
massecuite.
Example.
Let
a
p
=84.5; =
100;
p'"60.6.
"'^^~^'a^0.eO^
and
100aj"e0.66,
the
percent-
-
age 138a.
described
of
crystals
of
Determination in
paragraph
in
118.
the
the
massecuite. Glucose."Proceed
as
is
ANALYSIS
Polarizadon."Weigh
130. in
sugar
SUGARS.
OF
nickel
capsule. Add sufficient for the water waiting a moment
a
the sugar, The
moist
weight
normal
the
water
of
the
moisten
to
penetrate the
to
usually be poured slowly into 100-cc. narrow-neck flask without a difficulty.A little to accomplish this expeditiously. If practice is necessary is experienced, a special funnel of nickel {see page difficulty 165) should be inserted and extend just into the body of the mass.
flask. The
The
sugar
sugar
with
jet of
a
flask should water
prevent
by imparting above
be
a
neck
Care
60
of the
should
of water
cc.
well
from
readilywashed
and
water.
about
than
more
be
may
capsule, funnel
may
cleaned
adhering
rotary motion
the level of the eye
through the funnel.
flask must observed
be
in these
before
use
the
washed
not
to
use
operations. The (see
169)
page
to
Dissolve the sugar
to the neck. to
be
flask.
ocasionallyto
see
Hold
the
whether
flask
all the
Jt is essential that no sugar be left crystalsare in solution. undissolved before proceeding to the clarification. Having dissolved the sugar, add from 0 to 8 cc. of subacethe quantity depending upon the grade tate of lead (54.3**), the
of
White
sugar.
sugar
requires
no
lead, but
should
to facilitate filtration. cream usually receive a little alumina High-grade centrifugalsrequire from 1 to 2 cc. and low according to their grade, up to about 8 cc. of the sugars, After lead solution. mixing the sugar and lead solutions add about 2 cc. of alumina-cream ume (392) and complete the vol-
i
J
the neck of the flask. If washing down down interferes with this operation it should be broken
to foam
100
cc,
The water should be of the temperature drop of ether. and the flask should be held by the of the polariscope room part of the neck during the manipulations, to prevent upper with
a
warming
the solution.
drops of
water
adhere
to
the neck
be absorbed
by a stripof filter-paper. finished these operations, cover the mouth of the
of the flask they should
Having
If
*274
276
ANALYSIS
of
Determination
141.
OF
SUGARS.
Glucose."
The
method
be
to
selected
and glucose depends upon the percentages of sucrose should in the sample. A modification of Herzfeld's method be used for sugars polarizingabove 99". The Meissl and Hiller method, page 236, should be used for sugar containing than 1 per cent of glucose. more Method for Sugars Potarizingabove 99**. Dissolve 40 grams of sugar, contained in a 200 cc. flask,in water, add normal dilute to the mark, solution for clarification, lead acetate mix and filter. Add dry sodium oxalate to the filtrate for be predeleading and refilter. If preferred,the lead may cipitated by potassium oxalate solution before diluting "
cc.
and
Measure
50
to 100
solution and and
add
50
thus
cc.
be avoided.
of Soxhlet's cc.
25 solution, i.e., of the alkali (297) into
of
the deleaded
cc.
25
filtration may
one
sugar
of the copper 400 cc. beaker
cc. a
solution.
Heat
the
boiling,taking about four minutes to reach this temperature and continue the boilingexactly two minutes. At the conclusion of the heating add 100 cc. of cold recently mixture
to
boiled distilled water
to
the contents
of the beaker
and
then
oxide in a Gooch or an immediately filter off the cuprous crucible and proceed by one of the methods alundum described The percentage of glucose is ascertained from the in 118. followingtable by inspection: HERZFELD'S
TABLE
FOR IN
OR CENT
LESS
OF
SUCROSE.
MATERIALS
INVERT-SUGAR
THE
DETERMINATION CONTAINING AND
MORE
OF 1 PER
THAN
VERT-SUGAR IN-
CENT 99
PER
ESTIMATION
OP
Estimation
142. driven
of
by drying in
off
the an
operation is conducted
the
sugar.
the temperature
sugar,
fact such
factories
sugar
the
depends
drying
of
temperature
in
off until
driven
should two
receive three
or
be
dried
for
conducting
hours
samples
both
be cooled
in
method
moisture
is reached.
of sugar shallow dish is
a
vacuum-oven,,
and
water-oven
a
recommends
considered
dry.
moistened
that
ceases
sugar
after
air-oven and
an
Pellet
water
that
the
sample
lose moisture
to
dried
The
sugar
"
described
as
to
desiccator preparatory to weighing. of the Ash. ^The sulphated-ash
a
Determination
143.
of
granulated
are
be heated
granulated sugar,
with
percentage
the
in
of
105** C.
at
C.
3 grams
transferred to
be
period
paralleltest
a
When
contains.
should
should
short
a
absence
the
preliminarydrying
estimated
the
with
a
in
105"
at
of 105** C.
A
usually sufficient. Low-grade sugars,
raw-
comparatively
dried
drying period of three hours for 2 to of a broad the bottom spread evenly over
in
product, hence
even
may
temperature
a
be
of
molasses
a
Modem
vacuum.
liable to occlude
Large crystalsare
at which
lOO"* C. and
usually be
may
is
character as
little low-grade
high. A sugar of large and exceptionallyhigh-test sugars is not
the
upon
rise above
not
moisture
temperature
crystal should
110** C.
The
grade, such
dried
be
produce
now
The
should
should
sugars
Moisture."
is of low
sugar
277
MOISTURE.
oven.
the
If the
THE
on
270
page
for massecuites
testing. factory and commercial Iron in 144. Sugars. Sulphide
is used
in
both
^Prepare a stock solution containing 10 grams solved discrystallized ferrous sulphate, FeS04-7H"0,
Method.' of
"
pure
in addition
Colorimetric
50-60
a
of
few
a
per
cent
solution,with the
sucrose
pure
drops of sulphuricacid,and dilute
to 1000
The acid should be very with the sugar solution. diluted before adding it to the sugar solution.
largely
cc.
Dilute to
time
as
solution The
required, e.g., 10
to 500 tests
are "
1
solution with
this stock
cc.
distilled water,
to
100
cc.
and
50
time
from
of this
cc.
cc.
made '
Eastick, Og^lvle and
in Nessler's
cylinders,a number '
J
Linfield, Int. Si"gar Journ., 14, 428.
of '"
278
OF
ANALYSIS
of the
which
SUGARS.
diameter and
same
height should be provided.
cylindersmeasure increasingamounts of the diluted stock solution,noting the quantity of iron in Add 2 cc. of recently preeach, and dilute each to 100 cc. pared of ammonia to each and stir. solve Dismonosulphide Into
series of these
a
in
of the sugar
3 to 10 grams
the solution to 100
add
and
cc.
2
a
cc.
Nessler's of the
cylinder,dilute
sulphide solution.
cylindersStand ten minutes and then match the color of those containing of that including the sample with one then contain Both the same the stock solution. quantity used. of iron,t.c, the quantity of iron in the sugar The Let the
cylindersshould stand
white
on
in
paper
the
making
sulphide is prepared by saturating ammonium with sulphureted hydrogen and then adding an
The
the
In
of dark
case
incinerate the sugar,
sugars,
sulphuric acid, burning
of iron-free
addition
droxide hyequal
hydroxide.
of ammonium
volume
parisons. com-
at
with
the
the
lowest
the ash in a Dissolve minimum possible temperature. quantity of iron-free hydrochloricacid and proceed with this solution
as
The
145.
described.
has been
Color
Dutch
Standards."
Foreign sugars duty according to their
entering certain countries,pay If their color is No. 16 Dutch polarization and color. standard, e.g., or lighter,they pay a higher rate of duty than
on
this standard.
than
if darker
of sugar
numbered
renewed
is not
set
a
'is white
samples These
sugar.
in Holland The
of
and
are
time, since the color of the
to
plied sup-
samples should sugar
permanent.
of
chemist a
sample
of this color
will
sugar
a
tropical sugar
of No. or
16, so
as
in with
siigarthat
a
raw
the
factoryshould
to avoid
the
rendment sugar
is the
and
No.
first be
shipment
lighterto certain countries
loss to the factory-owners. The Rendment." 146. of refined
usuallybe darker than
is boiled
molasses
especiallywhen with
of
bottles.
in sealed
time
from
Centrifugal 96** The
up establishment
trade
the sugar be
an
consist
20, which
to
prepared by
are
standards
color
Dutch
The
16
sugar.'
supplied of sugar
consequent
estimated yield will produce. This esti-
279
RENDMENT.
Biate
is in
The
ash
based different
American from
percentage
refining
upon
countries refiners
the of
and
rendment,
five
deduct of
polarization or
for
the
the
of
sugars
times
raw
**
is
and
experience
calculated different
the
origin.
percentage obtain
to
sugar
analysis"
ously vari-
of
the
sugar.
of the
ANALYSIS
FILTER-PRESS
THE
OF
CAKE.
r of
Preparation
147.
press-cakeobtained small
to
it to
With
firm
be
and
Moisture
148.
press-cake, in a
the
water-oven
at
of
means
sample
may
tared
of
reduced
lax^ to
necessary
subsample the
it.
press-cake
readily reduced.
be
-Dry
dish,
5
of
grams
The
the
weight loss of weight
constant
to
100** C.
approximately
be
then
management
be
spatula or
a
soft it may
careful
shallow
sample
104, should
Determination."
a
^The
"
large mortar,
a
and
cane
by
is very
paste in
a
good
will
as
cake
If the
in
directed
fragments and mixed
scissors. rub
Sample.
the
in X
percentage of moisture.
20=
should
sample
The
partly dried
be
at
a
low
temperature
before
to 100" C, otherwise the surfaces of heating the oven be covered with a glazed coatthe fragments of press-cakemay ing
would
which
in all
convenient to have
other
prevent the
two
cake filter-press
to
sample
Wash
the material 6
the
volume
and
small
a
low
a
and
temperature
into
to
100
a
a
Add
smooth
100-cc.
of lead mix
cc,
^Transfer
"
mortar.
it to
rub
subacetate
cc.
to
Determination.
to the
add
heated
one
the
final'temperature.
Sucrose
149.
be
open-dish dryings of sugar-house materials
ovens,
to the
It would
of moisture.
escape
cream
flask with
solution the
25
grams
boilinghot with
of
water
the
pestle. hot water, cool,
(54.3**Brix), complete
contents
of the
flask thoroughly,
and polarize. The polariscopereading is the filter, in the press-cake. percentage of sucrose of the sample, 50 grams convenient It is usuallymore to use of lead while rubbing the material and add the subacetate to
the
a
and
cream
removal
mortar.
A
all into
wash
of the
last
flask with
a
200-cc.
portionsof
the
neck
flask. This facilitates
press-cake from the enlarged above the gradua* the
28a
SUCROSE
is
tion
in
convenient
more
sugar-flask
(Fig.
in
in
object
this
is
using
to
for
correct
by
A
rubbed
to
with
7"
of
water
weight
the
lead
cipitate pre-
matter.
sample
a
of
described,
method
residue
4.6X2+
and
filter-
also
and
0.5
is
9.7,
of
amount
normal
weight.
similar
results
that
average
those
25
the
same
material
experiments described.
to
by
the
was
the
very
of
to
The
sum
other
two
approximately use
instead writer
4.6.
diluted
0.5. in
a
cooled
reading and
as
is
onto
with
a
polarized
was
defecated
washed
filtrate
giving
grams
sample
continued The
of
cent
and
sugar-flask
filtrate
tated precipi-
this
then
was
a
and
per
water
lead,
cooling,
9.6
of
hot
filtrate.
nearly
or
Many to
of
into The
showing
experiments,
with
cream
of
each
portion
after
lime
of
polarized,
washed
filtered.
acid,
in
washing cc.
cc.
was
and
a
200
200
to
acetic
third
The
nearly
to
diluted
correct
on
gave
subaoetate
filter.
cc.
of
saccharates
sucrose.
100
normal
insoluble
the
adding
levulose,
The
the
volume
of
the
by
decompose
to
and
of
material
the
oe.
modified
hot
ordinary
an
of
grams
experiments,
cake,
press
the
that
Parallel
25
instead
analysis
and
Fig.
than
analysis
this
78). The
100
281
DETERMINATION.
the of
have
the
given
ANALYSIS
OF
THE
BAGASSE
CHIPS
the
sample
as
described
mixed
and
quickly reduced The
(DIFFUSION),
Preiiaratton of
1^.
EXHAUSTED
AND
the
Samples."
in 100, it should
be
After
oughly thor-
subsampled. The subsample should small piecesby chopping or shredding.
to
preparation of the sample for the sucrose important. The pieces should be very
Java
securing
rapidly and
be
test is especially
small.
The
require this sample to be fine enough
laboratories
to
^ collaborated in the through a 4-mm" sieve^ De Haan preparation of the Java instructions for bagasse analysis in which the above specification ea to the sample is given. He,
pass
however, has stated
^
is reallylargely due
to incorrect
influence
that the apparent
of fineness
sampling. This implies that the chemist unconsciously selects liie larger pieces rather ' than an Nonis of the sample. 6 nun. i^)ecifie8 as average largest admissible the opinion of the writei^ attempts the diameter
of the.
piece of bagasse. to
reduce
lead to specificationmay the the drying of the sample, especiallywhen Norris'
finer than
is
high.
average
and
4
it to average cent
per
it is evident is
as
may
that
too
high.
even
There
sucrose
Slow
in the
From
then
the
through
errors
content
sucrose
to
ascertain
is often
these
be
sucrose
the
observations
prepared numbers
as
may
compensating error viz.,slightlyimperfect extraction a
rapidly be
1
Int.
"
Ibid., 5.
Sugar
Journ., 1912,
Bui. 32, Haw. "Ibid., 8.
Sugar
result in
may
a
of the
large error
14, 43.
Planters'
Ezpt. Sta., 32. 282
a
that
digestion.
preparation of the sample
i
material
during the preparation of the sample the chopper is covered 2 per cent when sample should
the
offset this error,
tests
numerous
uncovered.
when
possible,and
httle
made
loss of moisture
found
and
Norris
*
the
In
284
ANALYSIS
BAGASSE
OF
AND
EXHAUSTED
CHIPS.
The Athol meat-chopper, size by hand power. No. 405, Fig. 80, is an efficient machine for reducing bagasse. has large capacity and may This machine be oovc^^ during chopping.
by belt
or
indicated
dry
It is also
dried in the condition
mills,to avoid
it is of
has
been
importance
to
tion distribu-
important that the sample
in which
both
upon
As
it is received
from
the
drying during the manipulations.
from
error
Experiments laboratory have
Moisture."
of the lack of uniform
account
on
of the moisture. be
the
preceding paragraph,
in the
large sample
a
of
Determination
151.
manufacturing scale and
a
in the
be heated to high bagasse may without appreciable decomposition. Such temperatures made in drying shredded cane tests were at Preston, Cuba, where the. temperature employed was higher than very much is here suggested for laboratory work. Drying in vacuumthat
temperatures is not dependable.
at low
ovens
shown
recommend
drying samples of
20
or
grams
writers
Many less.
even
From
there point of view of the test of the particular20 grams is no objection to this quantity,but so small a sample cannot accurately represent a material such as bagasse. The methods of drying given in this book are arranged in order of the writer's preference: Method ^This InvolvingDrying in a Current of Heated Air. method requiresa specialoven onthfB principleof that shown the
"
is The Fig. 81. oven provided with a removable and the clamps, E, insure an
in
of the
but water
this does
not
heater
is
If this heater the
the
cover,
D.
rubber-gasket,/^
A
jointbetween air-tight
the
body
clamp may not be necessary A steamif the door is heavy and the jointsare well groimd. of air through a ejector,Ff draws a very strong current The air is heated by heater, the pipe (7,and the basket A. receive a preliminary steam-coil. It may a passing it over quick-lime,followed by filtration, drying by drawing it over oven
and
cylindricalcast-iron vessel, C,
a
air should
appear an
The
cover.
to be
inexpensive and
is uiSed with be
drawn
exhaust
efficient steam
through the
surrounding it,but with live
steam
the coil, The
of air is
specificheat
A
necessary.
heating device.
from
copper
size feed-
small
the
engines,
coil,the
the air should
low, hence
pass
the
steam over
pipes
DBTBRMIKATION
should
be
THE
OF
covered
ajid
a
o! it must
large volume
very
285
HOIBTtTRE.
be
used. A
cylindrical bagasae-baaket
fits in the
be
of the
is used
as
round
tared
banket
holes per
basket
and
the
makes
basket
ueaally sufGraent oS
gasket
A
insure
pipe of
G.
air.
A
battery,
a
a
If it is desired
ejector, F, when an
fur-eock
This
Those
oven
and
used.
leave
or
inches
of loose bagasse
or
deep. 2
the
the
air
are
be,
If the
a
oven
be provided in the
regulating the
will receive basket
to
on
the
provide
in breaking the
use
of any
current
turned
steam
for
This
weight
thermMneter,
it is necessary
elsewhere
for the nriter 12
in
oven,
constructed
The
should
The
if need
air current.
stop-valve
to
cover
be
may
constructed
in diameter
be of the
opening the
in the
1'he
of the
pressure
joint, but
good
may
a
the
is also convenient
valve
625
flange supports
narrow
bagasse and
steam-packing
of
one
about
inch is suitable for this purpose.
H, indicates the temperature forms
The
plate, such
containing
joint vilh the iron castings.
to
should
to be dried.
are
brass
Sheet
brass, A,
baskets
more
samples
is open. a
and
or
sheet
finely perforated brass
is of
square
basket
thin
very
Two
if many
in centrifugals.
of the
top
is indicated.
as
and
provided
bottom
of
oven
of
convenient a
basket
'siw.
8 inohes
will hold
kilograms if lightly packed.
gram 1 kilo-
The
286
ANALYSIS
OF
BAGASSE
drying period is extended basket
of this size may
shown
in
The
few minutes
ft
be used
A by the packing. with the 5-kilogram balance
Fig, 44.
method
of
drying is as follows:
Assuming efficient millkilograms by subsamkilograms of bagasse,
work, reduee, the sample to about 2 pling; fill the tared basket with 2 be necessary. packing it lightlyas may
replacethe
in the oven,
110" C. and
above
be heated
air should
The
air.
and
cover
pr^erably
Insert
sufficient
turn
ejector to produce
into the
steam
CHIi"S.
EXHAUSTED
ANP
a
very
to 130" C.
basket
high-|;":e8sure
strong
conveni^t
to any
the
of
current
temperature
The
air-pipeshould
be well covered.
drying -periodvaries with the temperature of the air and the condition of the bagasse. At 110" C. the period is usually At the close of the drying-period, about ninety minutes. The
which
after
little experiencewith thfe oven
a
may
be
arbitrarily place it in a
by the bail.By and A large earthenware desiccator to cool. a jar will serve as of desiccator. After cooling,ascertain the weight in grams the dry bagasse and divide this number by 20, to arrive at the "the basket
fixed,remove
of
cent
per
the per
dry of
cent
The
contained.
lower
The
in the upper are The capacity each.
per
section
six
and
is
cent
moisture
is 100
dry matter. originallydesigned by the writer
as
oven
The
matter.
contains
illustrated
is less
easily
grams
expensive and
It repairsthan the older model. built in the plantation shops, largely from
accessible for
more
is self-
heating-coils,
drjdng-tubes of 200
bagasse
oven
the
*
be
.
minus
may
old
material. dried be in Drying in Packages* ^The bagasse may with cheese-cloth or mosquito-netting. packages covered Several hours' heating at 110" G. are required to expel the Proceed follows: Weigh about a yard of finemoisture. as mesh including a few pins, and determine mosquito-netting, "
in
moisture
it.
about
kilograms of the bagasse, sampled as described above, in the netting,and pin 'it together and quickly weigh it on a good scale. Dry the package of bagasse to constant weight in the steam the
"""-
"
*
"--
Journ.
"
"
--
Ind.
Wrap
up
-t
' --
and
2
Eng.
--
Chem.,
-
--
June, 1910, 9t No.
"i-_,j,_
6.
_^^^^
DETERMINATION
OF
dr3ing-oven described
farther
the
transferred
package should the
awaiting the
The
this
is smaller
error
weighings
While
than
this introduces
would
moisture
of
is best
calculati""i oi the moisture
the
out directly to the scale with-
through absorption
case
making
In
on.
cooling of the material.
small error,
a
be
be
287
MOISTURE.
THE
otherwise
from
shown
air.
the
ing by the follow-
example:
pins. *
mosquito-netting
of the
weight
Dry
mosquito-netting and
of the
Weight
and
60
pins.
4
package of bagasse
of the
Weight
of the
weight
of
package
in the
bagasse and
"
"
"
netting...
i4
I*
"*"
bagasse
Moisture
2060
Tlie
2000
H-
of
the
in
1 gram
netting
964
grams "
of
cent
is
bagasse.
in the
moisture
large in
so
grams
bagasse used.
weight makes
the
""
4
per
quantity of bagasse
error
bagasse
grams
1096
960
=48.0
100
X
grams
2060
weight of the
=2000=
-60
9C0
t(
56 .
.
Moisture
Dry
grams
this method
an
an
.05 in
only
of
error
that
p"er cent.
for the
desiccation
Manifestly
a
metal
small
netting.
A
fall from
the
be
required
are
could
basket
be
substituted
for
the
quantity of bagasse-dust will sometimes
package, but shown
oven
hours
to
C.
affect the accuracy The
24
usually
110*
at
dryings by this method
the
that
and
complete,
very
shown
has
Experience
in
its
weight is
too
small
to
ciably appre-
of the test. is suitable
Fig. 82
for
in
use
these
tests. in
Drying as
containers
inches
by
1.25
bottom
brass.
and
The
110** C. and
of
"
bagasse.
holding
inches the
Shallow
Trays.
for the
balance
sugar
the
Metal
50
deep.
A
grams
The
tray is of wire
temperature
of
preferably 130" C.
the
metal suitable of
may
size for
be
use
used the
on
bagasse is 4 inches by 8
drying gauze oven
trays
progresses or
faster
if
perforated sheet
should
be
at
least
1 288
ANALYSIS
BAQASSE
AND
drying-otien. The
SUam
Fig.
OP
It
82.
is
drying-oven is
steam
"
CHIPS.
EXHAUSTED
conveniently constructed
most
shown
of
id
2-incb
Two steam manifolds, or planka of well-seasoned lumber. live used with steam to heat the coils,C, of iron pipe are
The
coils, instead
of two
use
pipe is suitable
iron
Half-inch
oven.
for
of one,
making
the
facilitates
coils.
regulating
the
temperature. Holes in the door of the
oven
D.
A
eir
wiirm
inserted in the shelf B. mesh
This
should
protected '
There
shelf
from
each
wire
a
other
the
near
The
screen.
parts should
be
the
usual carpenter's expedients. pipes, globe-valveson each of the inlet and tail-
coil,to regulate the
and
steam
the
dischai^ge
water.
moisture
tests, but DeterminatloD
Method.
"
The
serves
also in
of the
drying glass-ware, etc.
Sucrose.
Single-digestion
"
following is the usual method
the percentage of
capacity and add carbonate.
in the
sucrose
finelydivided bagasse 600
in cc.
a
The
long will
answer,
of
bagasse: Weigh
detfrmining 50 grama
dry, tared flask of about
water
reflux condenser, for which 4 feet
and
wall
be
of this type is a very convenient part of a sug"rnot only be used It may for latxHutory equipment.
153.
sodium
door
of
readily
can
oven
house many
air, and. the moist
hole in the
a
tray B is made
warping by be
of the condensation An
or
admit
thermometer
by boring
oven
be large. The
should to
at
escapes
at A
flask
and
2
should
purpose
a
cc.
of be
a
5%
1000
of cc.
solution of
provided with
small glass tube
about
a
THE
OF
DETERMINATION
289
SUCROSE.
gentleboilingand continue hour. Cool and weigh the flask and the heating during one Drain off a portion of the solution,clarifyit with contents. tube. dry subacetate of lead and polarizeit,using a 400-mm. in the solution is made calculation of the sucrose The by Schmitz's table,as described for use with dry lead,page 500. be clarified with a few drops of Or 100 cc. of the solution may subacetate of lead solution,diluted to 110 cc. and the the made usual by Schmitz's calculation of the per cent sucrose as With these very dilute solutions,the degree table, page 506. need
Brix
of the flask to
the contents
Heat
be considered
not
in the calculations.
of the to terms calculating the sucrose bagasse is illustrated in the followingexample, in which the in the bagasse is assumed to be 45 per cent: fiber or marc method
The
of
of flask +
Weight
"
"
"
bagasse +
620
water
bagasse +water fiber in bagasse thin
=
"
510
'*
50X0.45=
''
22.5
juice
of thin
grams
110
"
"
"
487.5
juice,Home'smethod,
179,usinga 400 2 (account of tube length)=2.2 and the tube =4.4; 4.4 cent corresponding, by Schmitz's table =0.57. sucrose in the bagasse is therefore 487.5 X 0.0067 per cent sucrose
Polarization mm.
page
-r-
per The
X2=5.56. A for
copper
the
convenientlybe
Fig.83, may digester, This
flask.
should
about
be
4
inches
substituted
diameter
by
that may be deep and be provided with a brass cover clamped to it,making a tightjoint. A brass tube attached A brass rod, carrying a a condenser. serves as to the cover 6 inches
small
extend
disk
for
above
mixing
the
tube.
purposes,
The
rod
should should
pass
be
through and moved
up
and
occasionallyeither by hand or mechanically. A Kodak veniently condeveloping-tank, fitted with a condensing-tube, may be used as a digester. should be added to the bagasse after startingthe No water digestion. The boilingshould be very gentle or, preferably, the liquidshould just reach the boiling-point. Rapid boiling, with consequent large return from the condenser,results in down
a
dilution
error.
2d0
ANALTBIB
OF
Repotted JHgttlwn bagaase
with
this
digestion
eight times.
Press
hydraulic
other
boil it durir^ ten
or
with
residue
the
and
press
with
and
water
Uttle
and
temperature
briug
to
water
unite
Clarify the solution
degree
Brix
by Home's
of this very
table
on
calculate page
500.
polariacope reading sucrose
the
If the should
is that of the extract,
peat Re-
spoon.
decantation in
a
Cool
the
in
to
with
divided
Con^dcr
may
tube
by
aid
the
be,
page
179.
be neglected.
600-mm. the
to
volume.
dry-lead method,
a
all
powerful
liquid
easily measurable
an
600-mm, be
iron
Drain
liquid expressed
dilute soluticn
sucrose
minutes.
bagasse
the
finely divided
it, adding, if need
Polarize the solution,preferably using
tube, and
an
the
of the
measure
it to
dish,preferttbt"
of
grams
portions already di'ained off.
ordmary
The
100
CHIPS.
suitable
a
liquid,pressing the bagasse
off the
those
In
"
cover
and
water
BXHAU8TBD
AND
Method.
porcelain caseerole,
a
a
BAQABSE
observationof
Schmita's
has
been
3.
This
the cubic
used per
the cent
centimeters
292
OF
ANALYSIS
BAOASSE
when not in top of the inner vessel,
at the
It should
cover.
not
CHIPS.
EXHAUSTED
AND
use, and
until after the
be removed
and
serve
as
a
completion
the
conclusion of the digestion weighing. and wipe the inner vessel and set digestionperiod, remove be cooled by placing it aside to cool and weigh, or it may the
of
as
in the
Norris
states
calculation
The
it in cold water. made
At
^
of the per
cent
sucrose
is
single-digestion method, page 289. of the vessel that the shape and dimensions
apparently influence the results. The vessel should not be The dimensions too deep. given are those decided upon by Norris after many experiments. of the Fiber Determination 153. (Mare)." The fiber be determined directlyas in the'cane, 110, but preferably may This method was adopted by the followingindirect method. comparative tests in by the author after several thousand The Cuban-American Sugar Co.'s laboratories: The required
data
are
Let
obtained
/Si=the P=the C=the
in the mill control. in the
bagasse; bagasse; per cent sucrose coefficient of purity of the residual juice (see dry
matter
in the
paragraph); cent fiber (marc) in the bagasse,
next a;=per
then
x="Sf-100P/C.
Steuerwald, of the Java of the various at the conclusion
and
methods
of fiber
alcohol-extraction
He
considers
methods
and
an
gation investi-
determination,arrived
that the indii-ect method
reliable results.
most
Experiment Station,in as
above
the claims concludes
gives the
of the .waterthat
the aqueous
give high figures,and the alcoholic extraction, correcting for the separation of saccharetin from the even fiber,gives low figures. ^The residual Residual Juice. 154. Purity of the is considered the juiceremaining in the final bagasse, juice,i.e., chemists to correspond in purity to that of the juice by many extracted by the last mill of the train. The experience of the truth. the writer indicates that this is near However, methods
"
since
the
between
bagasse receives its final and heaviest the juiceflowingfrom the last pair of rolls,
pressure
the last
probably
roll
the
through
them
is
analysis
The
weight
The
is the
usual
to
so
following
F
=
F'
it.
method,
in
fiber
the
fiber
the
weight
of
the
weight
of
thin
X
=
the
press.
the
per
cent
cane;
per
cent
exhausted
ization polar-
chips.
the
chips fresh
is
sponds corre-
estimated
by
considered in
it
and
cane,
be
may
found
is
cane
the
"
100=
the
hydraulic Consider
fiber
the
which
of
fiber
of
weight
This
heavy
well-drained
wei^^t
the
consider
the
i.e., all
Let
with
nearly
very
with
exhausted
in
juice
thin
the
of
the
press Ex-
passing
times
juices.
of
that
be
to
juices.
by
chips
powerful
a
other
for
as
juice
this
of
made
in
chips
the
press
at
pressure,
other
culating cal-
"
several
laboratory-mill
a
in
used
Sucrose.
well-drained
the
from
juice
thin
the
is
for
as
Diffusion-chips,
Exhausted
155.
made
is
analysis
The
fiber.
residual
true
juice
this
of
purity
of
coefficient
The
juice.
the
approximates
nearly
more
293
SUCROSE.
DIFFUSION-CHIPS,
EXHAUSTED
the
a
stant, con-
bagasse:
chips;
cane;
juice
in
chips,
the
then and
F'(a;+F')=100F of
Both
sampled, in
this
the
and
fresh
hence
calculatioQ.
juice
thin
the
direct
per
exhausted fiber
x
=
100
the
100F/r-F',
weight
cane.
chips detenninations
may
be
may
accurately be
used
OF
ANALYSIS
"
o! Waste
Analysis
156.
^The
polarizationof
requires
least
at
reasonable
attain
from
waters
waste
Diffusion
Water,
The
accuracy.
Prooess.
diffusion-battery
the
observation-^ube
50O-iiim.
a
WASTES.
FACTORY
in
order
to
after iOtration
waters
the use usually clear enough to polarize without As few plantershave polariscopeslong enough f op a mtist tube, a Ghezmcal method generallybe used. Concentrate the s"mple to 5 per cent of its volulne.
are
of
lead.
SOO-^nm.
.
the
by
sucrose
of
5
cc.
hydrochloric acid
of
means
acid. to
75
Nearly hydrate.
89).
in the
tion propor-
of the concentrated
cc.
the
neutralize
Invert
acid,
Determine
sample (see inversion^ with
after
the
late Calcuglucose formed. the glucose and multiply the per cent by .95; the result will be the per cent sucrose plus the small tity quanof glucose naturally present in the waste water. This sodium
quantity of glucose is be
may
The waste
small
too
to be
taken
neglected* Use Meissl and Weiu's of
prese?ice
is
water
an
aicpnsiderable amotint evidence
of
gross
of, and
account
table,l"age of sucrose
neglect
in
the
oa
189. the of
paft
the
batterymen. 157. Analysis of
current
of
from
Foam
compressed air,or
a
Sirups,
etc."
A
littleether
rapidly evaporated, liquid. Remove the
the foam to a quickly reduce ether by evaporation over warm water, at a safe distance from fire,and proceed with the analysis by the methods
will
described,beginning 125. 158. Analysis of the water
for
evaporated steam
the
Boiler
steam-boilers
from
condensed
the
juice and
in the
the
coils and
important
source
tubes of water
^The
feed-
largely derived from sirup. ^The water from
that
calandria
multiple effect,the calandrias and
is
Feed-Water.
and
of the
first vessel
coils of the
of the various
"
heaters
supply for the boilers.
of
the the
vacuum-pans forms a very
Sugar 294
may
ANALYSIS
OF
these
enter
the
BOILER
THE
through entrainment
waters
juice and
sirup and in the heating""urfaces. from
Sugar
the
causes
water
to
295
PEED-WATER.
with
the
vapors
through defects that develop foam
in the
boilers and
may
lead to accidents.
Further, though sugar may not be present in sufficient quantity to endanger the boilers through foaming, it is decomposed by tine heat into prodoets that are very detarimental
the
to
and
tubes
shells of
the
boilers,causing
pitting and overheating. The sugar is supposed to be first hydrolized,after which the dextrose and levulose decompose. The dextrose produces levulins,formic and acetic acids,and and formic acids and insoluble humic levulose,humic Both the acids and the insoluble humic compounds. pounds comHumic are injuriousto the boiler-plates^. compounds the
only when
form
for its action
the water
the humie
absorb
water
thin
Ammonia
retards
or
soda*. Except
forming humic compounds, injurethe plates.
hlgh-^essure boilers and'
compounds
with
the
monia am-
feed-
longer float,but deposit in non-conducting layers.^
which
threads
the hottest
at
into
ammonia
in
to
af^ear
introduced
Fats
form
levulose
on
does not
contains
the chemical
no
action whi(;h is most
vigorous
parts of the boiler.
position Sugar itself does not attack the boiler metal, but itsdecomproducts do, both chemiisallyand physically. The action has been explained. Some chemical of the decomposithe heating surfaces with oonse* ticm products deposit upon quent overheating and damage to t^ plates. The platesmay also be attacked by the acidityin the water derived from sulphited Juiftes.This "may b^^ prevented by the
addition
of soda
the
acidity of the juices.
Jt is evident
water
preferablyby reducing
or
thorough control of the feed-wat^r is The moment the best ^feguard against sugar. sugar appears .
the water
^
Osier
1912,
be
be turned' to the
thoroughly blown
should
below
as
a
this should
in the water should
that
to the
be used
at very
and in tracing the
.-Ungar.
14, 472.
Zeit.
down.
the boilers
The
"-naphthol test frequent intervals in testing
sources
Zuckerind,
and
sewer
1912,
of sugar
43,
397;
in it.
Int.
The
Sugar
odor
Jou^n.,
296
of the
the water
pronounced when
is very
steam
WASTES*
FACTORY
OF
ANALYSIS
contaiiis
sugar.
Qtuditativeand Approximate Quantitative Tests for Traces detected
quantity also
^The
"
sucrose
estimated
as
alcoholic solution of
cent
test-tube,then by means in 10 of the tube, run In the of
in the
circulatingwater qualitativelyby the o-naphthol method,
in Water,
Sugar
of
presence
demarkation
drops
5
of
may
be
and
its
20
a
pa-
a-naphth"d to 2 cc. of the water in a of a pipette,reaching to the bottom of concentrated sulphuric acid. cc.
sucrose
of the
Add
follows:
of
violet
a
Uquids and
two
the
at
appears
zone
line
gradually spreads.
of 0.1 per cent of sucrose, the color reaction In the presence is obscured by the darkening of the solution; with 0.01 ceut
per
color
the
si^crose
with
darknned of very wine; the entipe solution is colored. is that
O.OOr per cent sucrose, aoid used The in this test
be
strictlychemically and the a-naphthol should be of very good quality. solution of the reagent should be freshlyprepared from
pure
The time
and
to time
This 1
Ulac
is
test
the
be colored.
in the
"
When
test, and
is charred
sugar
-
solution
the
in 10,000,000 parts of water
sucrose
is shown
color
not
extr^nely deUcate.
part of
sucrose,
should
must
with
0.2
by the acid.^
a
A
tains con-
paleof
cent
per
I
and
similar
described was original method by Molisch.* Also the following: Thymol instead of rx-naphtholin the test yields a deep-red coloration,which on dilution with water gives at first a fine carmine, then a carmine flocculent precipitate.
possibly the
159.
Feed-water.* in
^This
"
for
Alarm
Automatic
alarm
is
Sugar based
in
the
BoUer
the
upon
change
It is comdensity of the water in the presence of sugar. posed of two communicating tubes (communicating vessels) within
one
tube
and
the
other.
The
flows through the
water
is stagnant
outer
at
a
in the
level.
constant
float a change of level in the inner tube causes close an electrical circuit and ring a bell. Since and
^
Rapp
*
Monatsch.
Besemf
Chem.,
elder, Deutsche 6, 198;
Zuckerind.,
1892,
in Jour.
Chem.
Abstract
923. I
Avertiseur
Lavan,
Ed.
Gallois, Paris.
inner
to
A
rise and
the
water
538. Soo.
Abs., 50.
COBALTOUS
is
the
of
NITRATE
corrected.
automatically
evident
increased
in
sp.
in
will of
the
placed
high,
the
float
1
free
be
should
possible
as
the
near
mm.
may
instrument
as
is
meters
instrument
the
location
density
1.5
lift
The
be
the
are
contact.
should
another
tubes,
gr.
sensibility the
Cobaltous
160.
1.001
the
bell
both
297
SUCROSE.
FOR
columns
convenient
a
A and
of
adjusting
vibrations.
pump
The
that
by
placed
be
solution
a
is
It
in
temperature
same
.therefore
TEST
of
feed-water
laboratory.
Nitrate
Test
Sucrose.^
for
^To "
about
15
which
is
are
sugars
soon
be
of
a
by
one,
and
distinguished.
such
as
of
subacetate
"
50
this
If
gum-arabic lead
Agricultural
dextrose
before
Analysis.
the
be
dextrin,
or
applying
H.
W.
the
Wiley.
two
hydrate.
When
9
the
with
lit,
ties, impuri-
alcohol
test.
Vol.
p.
the
dextrose
parts
with
two
is
sucrose
mixed
treat
color
turquoise-blue
by in
sucrose
sucrose
a
green.
produced
part
the
amethyst-violet
gives
light
a
tion solu-
cent
per
sodium
of
an
coloration 1
5
a
mixing
solution
treatment
into
of
cc.
thoroughly
cent
per
Pure
the
5
After
passes
mixed
predominant can
cc.
permanent.
which
color
2
gives
sucrose
add
nitrate.
add
solutions,
solution
sugar
cobaltous
of
"Pure
of
cc.
189.
or
ANALYSIS
MOLASSES
OF
CATTLE-FOOD
(MOLASCUIT).^
of tlie Moisture*
Determination
161.
of the food in
for
hours; cool in
10
and
the
note
the total los;sas
off.
This
weightof
the
ical supplies,form moisture
weigh.. before..
as
of
weight, driven
water
weight multiplied by 20 is of moisture in the sample. lead bottle-caps, used by dealers
The
granu)
boiUng water,
desiccator
a
5
drying 1 hour and weigh there has been only a slightchange
Repeat If
of
flat dish, at the temperature
a
Dry
"
the
centage per-
in chena-
conyenient dishes
very
determinations.
They
are
for
pensive inex-
very
8
sizes.
may
After
use
they
2
be
to
are
of
grams
of the
Etiier
Extract."
different
of many
be obtained
Determination
162. erate
and
thrown
away.
tlie Ash.
material
^Incin*
"
described
as
in
131. 163.
food, dried
the
of
161, The
with
extraction
Extract
described
as
D
is
flask
shown
connected
by
modification in
a
reflux
Fig.
cork
a
containing ether. with
The
tube 1
S
is sealed
Partly based
upon
into
the
methods
lower of
graph para-
a
Soxh-
85.
The
tube
a
small
tared
outer
tube
and
tube
A
closing the A
wire. small
Official Association
is .connected
the
from
part of the
in
of
with
condenser
percolator is prevented tube Z) by a spiralC of copper or
"
conveniently made
percolator,using Knorr^s let's apparatus
in
alcohol-free ether.
anhydrous
is most
to 3 grams
2
of
syphon-
percolator A^cultural
Chemists
298
300
Sucrose
166.
with
of
portion successive
filtrate
The
analysis
for
is
the
of
portions is
cooled
preliminary
in
tests
boiling
diluted
and
the
10 water
to
a
a
on
suitable
example,!
filter-paper.
volume, will
work
glucose
smafl
a
for
grams
187.
page
extracting
by
cattle-food,
in
given
prepared
glucose!
and
sucrose
methods
chemical
the
by
solution
weighed
500
indicate
ec
the
dilution.
proper
Notes
167.
and
^The "
The
The
Glucose.
and
determined
are
CATTLE-FOOD.
MOLASSES
OF
ANALYSIS
the
the
control
in
excellent
preparation.
on
tests
sugar of
the condition
Analyste."The
Cattle-food
are
usually
maiiufacture. for
required The
the
moisture the
by material
analysis,
without
factory is
usually further
in
DEFINITIONS WORK
AND
Normal
168.
Juice. assumed
to
These
normal be
the
Undiluted undiluted
or
juice
expressions are
USED
now
SUGAR
IN
APPLICATIONS.
THEIR
Juice.
The
"
EXPRESSIONS
OF
Absolute
Julee.
juice
originally
was
actually exists in the cane. applied to the juice extracted by
as
it
saturation of the bagasse. dry-milling, i.e.,milling without '^ The expression undiluted juice" is perhaps preferable to ''normal The
juice,"but long usage is known
cane
to
has established
contain
water
the latter.
that is free of sugar
If a piece of cane (lOB). This is termed "colloidal water." the rolls of a mill a part of this water be passed between In view of the exudes and drips from the end of the stalk. difficult to define the juice of this wBitet it becomes presence it exists in the cane, in the light of factory requirements. as the whole or normal For calculations based upon juiceof the it may
cane,
"
in
the
This the
be
well to consider
^juicesolids dissolved This
cane.
would
assume
solids be
may
be
this the
water-soluble
in all the
termed
that all the cells may
the
contained
water
"absolute
be broken
distributed in their liquid content.
stituents con-
juice."
down The
and cells
ruptured in milling,therefore the juiceextracted in dry milling can juice. only approximate the "absolute" This the inferential fact has an important bearing upon are
never
methods
all
of
calculating the weight of the
cane,
saturation-
juice content, etc. The customary use of "normal juice" jBS explained above is that employed in this book. The analysisof the normal juiceis calculated from the density and first-mill juice,and the of the crusher or mixed-crusher water,
mixed
the mixed
diluted
culated juice (109). A factor is calfrom the aensity of the crusher-juiceand that of the juicesobtained in dry-miUing. This factor is applied
purity of
or
crusher-juicedensity to ascertain that of the normal juice Crusher-juice Brix, 20^; mixed juice. Example: to
the
301
302
EXPRESSIONS
Brix, 19.7;
USED
factor
ratio
or
WORK.
SUGAR
IN
19.7 4-20 =0.985.
=
also page
See
323.
to indicate
used
are
it is finallymixed
as
Diluted
Juice.
Mixed
169.
and
the
Juice.
juice extracted
Megasse.
Bagasse.
sions expres-
all the
by
mills
to the defecation-staUon.
sent
juice is usually diluted witli the saturation 170.
These
"
This
"
This
water.
is the
expressing the juice from the is used in th^ English colonies. The Residual Juice. bagasse
left aft^
residue
woody The
cane.r
word
' '
'*
megasse 171. a
as
sponge
that absorbs and
retains
be
may
"
r^arded juice. The
part of the
a
ual" residjuiceso retained,the residue of that in the cane, is the juice. The true residual juicecan only be approximated and in the analysisonly the coefficient of purity of an assumed ^'
juice is determined.
residual
of fiber
the percentage In
cane.
train
or
number
the
purity
juice from
the true
as
the
in
culating cal-
bagasse and
the last nijill of the
the last roll of that mill is considered
or
is used
in the
marc
practice the juiceflowing from
coefficient of uses
This
to have
the
residual juice. The
same
writer
of the last mill in this discharge-roli
test.
Fiber
17;5.
of the
matter
Marc.
or
The
cane.
This
"
is
fiber
true
or
the
water-insoluble
cellulose is not
mined deter-
in the factory control.
Sirup.---The sirup is the concentrated juice of the
173. cane
from
^'meladura"
which
of the
''sirup'' has an it is applied where
has
sugar
no
been
extracted.
This
is the
factories. The word Spanish-Ammcan in sugar refineries opposite meaning solutions
to
frpm which
ha^
sugar
been
removed. 174.
Massecuite.
"
The
massecuite
sirup or molasses in which or
the material
has
the sugar
crystallize. Massecuites are numbers indicating their purity or 175.
sugar
that
are
has been
trated concen-
lized crystal-
point where designated by names or a
the number
of crops
of
to be removed. .
Molasses.-rWhen
the centrifugalmachine the mother liquor. This and is designated by names
the
been concentrated to
it will
crystalsof
is
a
massecuite
is ^un
in
a
crystals are separated from termed liquid is now ''molasses,"
sugar
and
numbers
correspondingwith
CIBCULATING
the massecuites. residue
from
'^
The
which
no
303
WATER.
final '^
more
be
can
sugar
is the liquid
molasses
true
or
removed, either
on
factory equipment or for commercial reasons. This is termed barrel-sirup in the refineries. ^This is the water used 176. in CIrculatiiig: Water. in the evaporation of the juice and condensing the vapors sirup. After leaving the condensers, this water, together with that derived from the. vapors, is usuallypassed over a cooling-tower to reduce its temperature, and it is returned to the condenser, thus circulatingthrough this apparatus. This water is often termed "cooling-towerwater." of
aocoimt
"
"
"
Sweet-water.
177.
of the
calandrias
^The
"
evaporator
condensed vapors often contained sugar,
in
the
carried
by entrainment, with the older types of apparatus. called "sweetThe water resulting from these vapors was though with efficient water,''and still receives this name, In refinerypracticeany very apparatus it contains no sugar. into
it
solution is termed
dilute sugar
Entrainment.
178.
from
vapors **
"sweet-water."
^When
"
h carried off with
sugar
the evaporators and
the
this is called
vacuum-pans,
entrainment." Coefficient
179.
of
Purity." The
usuallyappliedis the percentage
coefficient of
of apparent
solids (Brix) of the material.
purity as
in the
sucrose
parent ap-
coefficient is calculated
This
by dividingthe per cent sucrose, as ascertained by direct plying by the degree Brix of the substance and multipolarization, The calculated in this number the quotient by 100. coefficient of purity but only the apis not the true parent way of is calculated T he true coefficient purity coefficient. the
in
matter
determined
sucrose
as
method
are
term
from
'*
apparent
polarization. It is an
the
purity"
solid
of
and
the
Clergetor double"polarization industry is
sugar to
degree Brix
is well known
the number and that
approximate number, but
it is of great value
always be
by
in the
coefficient of
the
percentage
used.
general usage
The
the
by actuallydrying the material
ascertained
as
that
except
manner,
same
so
used.
in sugar
the
to
when
apply
calculated
sucrose
by direct
this coefficient for
manufacture
comparative and
the
so
lated calcu-
purposes
will doubtless
Frequently approximate data of the purity
304
USED
EXPBESSIONS
WORK.
SUGAR
IN
pf a product are required for immediate use, and as the factoiy wait for a tedious of determination superintendent cannot tedious double solids and an even polarization,he uses more the
coefficient, bearing in mind
apparent
allowances
Since
analyses be always conducted under be given the that due weight may other
the
On
special
in
used
at
omitted,^as is pften the
coefficient.
of two ''
word
should
true"
facture manu-
factories.
more
or
renderingwhat
case,
be
nevet
wotild
otherwise
useless.
^^ta almost
valuable
be
conditions,
different stages of the
the work
using this coefficient the
In
the
of purUy is only coefficient and in making comparisons
products
comparing
in
or
similar
very
that
true
researches
various
the
among
the
hand,
shortcomings.
it is adrisable
made,
be
must
its
expressions ''quotientof purity," ''degree of purity," often simply "the of purity," and quotient," "exponent The
the
and
With
"exponent"
using crystallizationin motion,
and
molasses
refening to this coefficient. of sugar-house work, "boiling in"
methods
modem
in
used
are
frequently required
coefficient is very
and
the
apparent
is of very
great
value.
Coefficient, Glucose
Glucos^:
180*
Ratio.
Glucose
Per - "
.
glucose
cent "
"
=r
-,
Per
is calculated
^This number
"
"
cent
X 100
follows:
as
"
,
"glucose
-.
Suerose,
100
per
": coefficient. ,
sucrose '
"
"
"
*
coefficient is useful
This
material
the
destroyed;
and
no
in
has
glucose
the
of
has been
sucrose
glucose
no
increase
an
detecting inversion
Provided
in the manufacture.
from
in
been
sucrose
separated
removed
coefficient
or
indicates
inversion. It is of both sugars *
181.
possiblebut hardly probable that by and
sucrose
the
might remain
quantity of
unit
per
sucrose
and
samfe
Coefficient.
Saline
relations
glucose the
"
saline
have
cent
of ash.
sucrose "
-r=r
Per
cent
z
ash
,. "
"saune
m
the
two
occurred.
coefficient is the
Calculoiion: Per
destruction
between
yet inversion
^The
the
t
,
coefficient.
Apparent
182.
the
noraial
183.
Actual
(Diffusion
Dilution
apparent dilution is the
305
DILtJnON.
APPARENT
that has been
of water
amount
The
Process)."
added
to that of the juice to increase its volume certain juice-contentin the diffusion-juice.This assumes a
to
cane.
Dilution.
milling and diffusion work
in
added
to
the
diluted
the
normal
of dilution.
water
of the
terms
in
179
to
actual
of
that tion, evapora-
reniove
the
preferablyreduced
to
juice,to
cane.
The
"
and
apparent from
derived
coefficients
all
the
Coefflcientis.
on
regard
is
number
density to
the
of the normal
This
weight of
Notes
184.
its
it represents
terms
both
is the percentage of water
and
juice to reduce
juice. Hence
in percentage
expression is used
^This
"
paragraph
coefficients
true
the
in
remarks
apply
to
"of sucrose,
percentage
degree Brix, or the solids by drying. According to usage, otherwise stated, the apparent coefficients are except where the
meant.
185" Available calculation
the that
Sugar.
of available
factory should
a
be
in the
or
sugar
able
to
given analysis. Manifestlythere control the
formulae
Several
"
are
in
use
for
the sugar it is assjimed lobtain with juicesof a
are
several conditions
that
able proportionof sugar that may be considered availof the machinery, viz. : the efficiency mill-juice,
intendent. quality of the juice,and the skill of the factory superof the In considering the juice,the quality of its impurities,as well as its richness,should be nature
the
into
taken
account.
A
grown
cane
on
certain
soils may
melassigenicsubstances than one of the same and equal apparent richness purity from another soil,and consequently the proportion of actually available sugar formula would indicate whereas a would be quite different,
take
the
more
up
canes
to be
Available
equal.
sugar-numbers
but
rough apprb^nmations ency except factoryequipment and efficitaken into consideration. The yield or recovery of are varies with the coefficient of purity of the juiceand the sugar for available sugar losses in manufacture, hence a formula when
must
The
the elements
take these elements
are
of the
into account.
practicalapplication of
available
sugar
calculations^
306
EXPRESSIONS
USED
except in estimatingreturn the present work
of
period or with that of SOU
and
organization. In this stock-taking, how
in
paring com-
factory with that of some ous previfactorysimilarlylocated as regards a
of value
are
it is desirable
event
in the
operated under
establishments
several
of
investment,is
new
calculations
Such
climate.
a
from
WORK.
SUGAR
IN
central
a
to know
trol con-
out (1) with-
nearly a factory is approaching its much efficiency; (2) how previously demonstrated sugar whether the factory is becoming is in process to determine requires either
congested and
of the process,
modification
much
(3) how
accounting
reasons
reduce
rate
the
closer
or
a grinding-rate,
supervisionof the
sonnel; per-
for commercial is in process or it is more (4) whether profitable to
sugar
and
grinding or
of
reduced
a
sacrifice somewhat
in
juice
extraction. Available is
cane
purchased
on
a
become
available
for
upon
sugar
factories.
The
industry
factory and
are
from
sugar
evidently
were
possibly that of these of
those
the
of
beet-
branches cane-sugar
fullyin the calculation
apply very
will not
production of
unlike
very
sugar
in both
conditions
when
necessary
analysis.
refiningexperience and
based
the
also
basis of its
earlier formulae
The
of
estimates
sugar
of the
cane.
following formula by Winter and Carp was published experience in Java, by Prinsen-Geerligs^ and is based upon which represents very favorable tropicalconditions: The
X
=
available
^=per
sucrose
cent
sucrose
cent
per
in the
cane;
juice in
terms
of the
weight of
the cane; C
="
coefficient of
the
purity of a;=/SX
To
calculate the available the value
juice.
(-f )
sucroee
"
to terms
of the available
by the polarizationof the sugar and multiply the quotient by 100. formula of The of Wint^-Carp-Geerligs has been found used great value in the writer's tropicalexperience. When sugar,
divide
^
of
International
x
Sugar
Journal, 6, 439.
308
USED
EXPRESSIONS
It should
remembered
be
liable to fluctuations
by the
than
of estimate
errors
"run"
that
date,"
"to
of two
WORK.
SUGAR
IN
as
figures are more they may be affected should
It
runs.
be
stated
operated beyond its normal capacity, factory was n umber froni thus necessitatingsUght changes in its efficiency that this
time s'
to
time. the
as
gar
is used
run
in
the
recovered
or
of
example
a
Also
previous
Betentlon
is the percentage of the retained
estimate
calculation.
for the
Sucrose
186.
the
the
of
available
efficiencynumber, for the previous
date"
"to
number
average
affects
This
in the
This
number
in the extracted
sucrose
in the commercial
the
juice that is ing In the follow-
sugar.
is the
balance, 92.32
sucrose
run
is used.
crop
Recovery."
or
first
retention
number: Sucrose
in the extracted
Sucrose
in the sugar
the extracted
juice,per cent
per
in the extracted Sucrose
.
in
sucrose
92 per
cent
32
6.58
press-cakeper in the extracted juice in the undetermined in the extracted
.
sucrose
juice.
in the
Sucrose
.
juice
in the molasses
Sucrose
100
cent.
cent
sucrose
.44 p^r
cent
crose su-
juice
100
66
Number. Efficiency Boiling-House Many factories use how retical to show efficiencynumbers nearly a theoThis number is usually yield of sugar is obtained. 187.
the
"
relation
percentage
recovery
available
number sugar
between
(186) and formula.
A
the
the
actual
number
retention
based
upon
or aa
part of the Winter-Carp-Geerligs
formula, 100(1.4"40/0), is used by the author in calculating Cuban- American the EfficiencyNumber of The Sugar Co.'s factories. This calculation is best illustrated by an example : Let the coefficient of purityof the raw juicebe 86.0 and actual retention number be 92.32, as in the previous paragraph, then 100(1.4-40/86) =93.49; 92.32-5-93.49X100=98.7, the number. A table is given on page 514 from which efficiency the
value
of
inspection.
100(1.4" 40/Purity)
may
be
ascertained
by
EFFICIENCY
BOILING-HOUSE
actually
available, in
the
based.
the
factory This
on
is
number
efficiency
The
as
it
takes
particular whose
number
of into
factory work
may
the
exceed
309
NUMBER.
in
value
the
account
as
calculating
with
compared
available 100
losses
in
sugar some
cases.
sugar
in
facture manu-
those fotmula
in
is
GHEMIOAL
CONTROL
SUGARrHOUSE
OF
Introductory." The chemical
188.
WORK.
control of the factory
is intended
along lines of
primarily to guide the manufacture best practice and to assist in detecting and
of sugar. The chemist
in the
reducing losses
factory corresponds with the auditor in
the
accounting department. He charges the superintendent with the sucrose material entering the factory in the raw and
credits
him
and the
control
that
leaving it in the products, byproducts, It is his duty to trace the travel of
losses.
and
sucrose
The
with
locate losses. the
of
milling considers
the
from
cane
its
delivery to the crusher to the delivery of the juice to the boiling-house and the bagasse to the fires. It is quite as important to ascertain the loss in the bagasse as to report the
extraction
engineer should reduction
locatingthe The
much
to
sucrose
consider
the
engineer. The
the
proportion of sugar that lost. The effort should as always be the of losses. It requires the assistance of the chemist
extracted
in
juice and
of not
so
of these losses.
causes
crystallizationof the
attention.
should
sugar
receive
constant
The
should purity coefficients of the massecuites be maintained at certain numbers, that the pan-work may and and that systematically efficiently no sary unnecesprogress work be thrown the crystallizers.This facilitates upon the
reservation
large part of the crystallizercapacity for the low-purity massecuites. The be must crystallizers controlled the best conditions to meet of equipment and manufacture. and
The it upon content
the
is often
sold
on
a
basis of its test,
control of the massecuites
becomes
of
importance.
quality a
a
Molasses
in this event
additional
sugar
of
of
the
sugar
basis of the most must
from
be
must
controlled
to
profitableanalysis. The
kept within
deterioration
be
certain
limits
to
maintain moisture
protect the
in storage. 310
311
INTRODUCTORY.
chemist is also the statistician of the factory. He
The
reports the quantity and
quality of the
materials,the
raw
and of analysis of the materials in process of manufacture the products and by-products. The chemist tistics staprepares that
have
of the manufacture Research Uie
and
or
with
is often
processes
both
necessitates
and
control
economy
the business of the establishment.
in connection
work
equipment
the
bearing upon
a
technical
and
the
improvements
called for and
chemical
in
this often
trainingon
the part
of the chemist.
laboratory should
The
all the
for part of the traiiiing-school chemist
methods, problems and
His
facture. the
a
superintendents. The
future with
be
control of the work
becomes
acquiunted
difficulties of the
should
mani"
familiarize him
with
details of the processes. The chemist's tunately training unforlacks the opportunity for practice in directing and This
controlling labor. the
leave
acquire A
a
that
samples
their
before
he
the
must
be
must must
be
highest feasible
be
must
integrity
methods
of
him
to
come.
must superintendent. He good .working knowledge of pan-boiling.
lesson
that
school
must
also
learned
early in factory control is representative of the materials and
be
unquestionable. Apparatus
adapted
to the work
is
accuracy
and
can
required,as
in hand. in the
Where
and the
testingof the
products, no detail should be omitted lead to dependable results. labor spared that may or The This following is an outline of the factory control. be greatly extended numbers by introducing ^Hrue" may materials
raw
instead appear
The from
the
of apparent for sucrose, etc., but in routine control; necessary
weight
of
this number
the and
this does not
usually
is
reported to the chemist and the weight and analysis of the raw
cane
juice extracted he calculates the the weight of the engineer and
superintendent. He must later the products, by-products and
mill-control sucrose
aecount
losses.
numbers
chargeable for this The
to
sucrose
mill
for the in
control
the analysisof the bagasse, and largely upon this analysis. in some cases, entirelyupon The juice is the starting-pcnntin the control of the raw Its weight and analysisare also elementsof manufacture.
depoids
very
312
the mill control.
WORK.
SUGAR-HOUSE
OF
CONTROL
CHEMICAL
in the
extracted weight of the sucrose juice plus that remaining in the bagasse is the baas determination of the percentage and weight of sucrose in the
The
The
and
caaie
analysis of the sirup
"meladura"
of the
of the
for the calculation
concentrated
or
the
of
ing entertion. extrac-
sucrose
juice,the
cane-
Spanish-American factories,is
the
trol con-
purificationof the juice and its evaporation, and results is a guide in the sugar-^boiUng. To obtain satisfactory in pan-boiling and to bring this work to as nearly a scientific and basis as is possible, the analysis of the massecuites molasses Massecuites is necessary are now usually boiled of the
.
Careful specifiedpuritiesby the injectionof molasses. control of this work is essential to a systeiraticgrading of to
the materials
the most
for
considering the
profitableextraction
tests factory. Control also often are required in the conduct of the crystallizers. The controlled both as products, sugar and molasses, are a
check
limitations
of the sugar,
and
manufacture
the
upon
the
of
to
meet
market
ditions. con-
cake is usually the only by-product whose filter-press be ascertained. Its analysis is usually hmited weight may of the sucrose, to the determination though occasionally The
controllingthe efficiency of the pressing and the quantityof water used in '^sweetening off,"or in reducing the cake for refiltration. the
A
solids
loss
of
determined
be
must
sucrose
temperatures
of
the
through
occur
may
multiple-effectsand
for
entrainment
of
knowledge
A
vacuum-pans.
in the
condensing and
the
condenser-waters
is
required in estimating this loss (313). In the
opinion of the author, many
losses in
apparently
manufacture
not
through inaccuracies
so
the processes
are
of
of the so-called mechanical actual inherent
the the
in
are
certain
of
analysis.
Except in very large factories,which force of chemists, a complete chemical The
losses, but
chemist
must
judge
can
from
afford
a
sufficient
contlrol is not
ticable. prac-
the
equipment of without decreasing
be omitted factory what work may tions efficiencyof the sugar-house. He must under all condihe detei^nine when properly, to some degree, may
WEIGHTS
AND
sacrifice accuracy for the sake of figuresfor immediate use. It is
just
control
arranged
be
in
the accounts
Measures.
be
it is
may Cane
of
pretense
measure
to
the
of the
bagasse and
mill
It is the
the control
the
in Cuba.
The
There
makers
the
to
to
leading scales
ton is
This
on
w^ght
custom a
factories
the
to
in
making
that
do
even
a
boiling-house,and
in
mill
this
control.
entirely upon the
the
In
a
analysis
Spanish pound in weighing reported in arrobas
are
{tondada)
contains
confusion the
on
in Havana
2000
the
of
pounds
part of scale-
Spanish pound, though
properly graduated.
are
gave
the
A
decree
of
equivalence
a as
100 kilograms, therefore avoirdupoispounds. Scale-beams
=46.0096
in Cuba
central
i^ould
use
some
=
It is the
with
equivalence of
pounds
Spanish
cane
reduced
weights, however,
Cane
weights
101 .4338 Spanish pounds graduated in Spanish pounds
the
weights and
juices.
Spanish Captain General 100
be
those
of the
depends
These
(libras) Sp.
few
are
control.
general custom
as
There
especiallyamong
control
pounds, Sp.
the
not
dispensed
be
event
25
all
applies especiallyiii Spanish unusual to find English and Spanish
chemical
a
may
cane
or
Weiglits
to
remark
cane,
essentia
not
are
system
same
Weights."
weigh their
not.
regard
in
be adopted ^ould weights and measures accuratelyas possible. A checking-system should the conditions of the factory and in so to meet in the calculations be possibleeliminate errors
devised
190.
MEASURES.
of
system
as
be
departments
indescriminately.
used
applied as far
AND
of the
This
system. America, where
same
be
of the various
It is quite essential that
"
should
measures
The
ical large factory, that the chemthe laboratory records well
Considerations
General
189.
units
promptly obtaining approximate
accimtte.
WEIGHTS
and
a
cctaiplete and
that
as
full and
important,
as
313
MEASURES.
and
scale
be used
use
the word in most
"libra." factories
inmiediately before
in the control.
to
reweigh
grinding it.
314
It
the
CONTROL
CHEMICAL
SUGAR-HOUSE
OF
beyond
through conditions that the weight of the
occur
may
chemist
WORK.
the be
must
cane
of
control
estimated
Small the factories,and even by an inferential method. in large piles, of Louisiana, often store the cane large ones ities liquidatingthese as often as is practicable. In certain localthe
is flumed
cane
call
special conditions should
methods
or
floated to the mills in water. for
and
statistical purposes
the
of
constituent
in
in
not
Inferential methods
factory.
inferential method.
an
used
only be
estimating the
the
serious
Such for
cane
control
of
require a knowledge of
that
.cane
These
be
may
traced
the
some
through the
The following millingprocess, e.g., the fiber,solids,or sucrose. example, from the records of a factory, illustrates aji inferential method:
appliedto the analysisof the give approximately the percentage of sucrose
Assume
juicewill
This
cane.
varies with
factor
and
content
crusher
factor which
a
the
variety of
the
cane,
It is smalls
milling conditions.
the
in the
with
fiber
light
heavy crushing. The factor approximates 0.85. with factors varying frozn a heavy crushing. Deerr ^ found
than
minimum
of 0.81
According
0.825. from
to
0.83
maximum
a
to
Pellet
0.84 and
to
writer has determined
the factor in
*
be
may
factors
and
of 0.848
as
low
as
low
as
as
Egypt
requiredof
Polarization Tons
0.80
in
very
extracted
sucrose
juice
in the mixed
Bagasse
18
45
.
juice. .305.7 11.3
cane
cent
per
cane
=
11. 3X100-5-48.
48.9 9=
Sucrose
in the
Sucrose
in the cane, per cent 18.45X0.80= in the bagasse per cent cane =23.11
bagasse, per
cent =
23.11 4.5 14.76
1.04
X0.045=
M^
I *
Int.
Sugar
Int. Sugar
1911, 13, 15. Journ., 1912, 14, 587.
Journ.,
The
large duty
.
in the
Sucrose
usually
0.80
i
of the crusher
of
Cuba, the low
(directtest) Fiber in the bagasse (directtest) Fiber
is
the crusher:
assumed
Factor
average
0.82 to 0.80.
being probably the result of the
numbers
an
316
CHEMICAL
CONTROL
a
free overflow
A
3-inch
''T"
The
is
;
service
the measured
and
should
conditions. volume
interference by
be
calibrated
Corrections
for temperature, with
foam.
with
be
must
water
applied
milk of lime added
to
and
the
for air juice. The allowance experimentally. It varies with milling
determined
conditions.
pumping
WORK.
suitable size.
a
air entrained
shouldbe
SUGAR-HOUSE
juice,without
measuring-tanks
under
for
for the
OF
A
tank
should
be
filled to
the
,
overflow
with
hours
few
juice and
its temperature
the temperature
be
noted.
After
a
and
shrinkage of the juice should be noted. A factor should then be figured from these data^ for change due to making allowance It is temperature. advisable to add formaldehyde to the juice to insure its preservation the period of res t as long as is pracand to make ticable. ihe juice moderately Occa"onally factories warm its way reduces the error due to the liming-tanks. This on .
of air.
entrainment
to
of the
The
method
juicefrom its volume factories
Many
defecators.
are
Such
given
compelled
is
of
should
which
tjbevessel is to be filled. of lime
to
measurement
block
the milk
wood
is
use
be
and
arranged
of
calculatingthe weight
on
page
347. the
measure
unsatisfactory.A
very to
juice in the
indicate the point
Correction
must
for temperature.
be made
to
for
It is customary
the heating surface is covered, juice the moment the reaching the "cracking" temperature about the moment defecator is full. This expels the air and gases which carry a part of the precipitated impuritiesto jihesurface with them. This, scum adds to the difficultyof making an accurate heat
to
the
The
rreasurement.
calculations
are
made
given
as
on
page
347. ii is tank
quite
is often
a
usual practice in Louisiana, whsre used
for
the
defecation
a'.ngle to clarification,
and
a
time in skinmiings.to remain in the troughs some with them; this order tQ separate the clear juice entrained into the defecator back and clear juice is finallydrawn of its volume. The account no being taken recladified, Yolvune of such juice should be determined, and average.
allow
the
calculatingthe net learn that.it is only by
deducted soon
that
he"
in
can
succeed
under
volume.
The
chemist
will
.
extreme
these
care
conditions
and
vigilance
in obtaining
MEASUREMENT
i'easonably accurate the
OP
THE
and
measurements
of
317
JUICE.
samples.
tion addi-
In
indicated,there is another due to the necessity of depending upon the workmen to keep of the number of defecators of juice. the count Automatic and counters be recording tank^auges may used in controlling the measuring-tanks. The recording check the a nd as a serves filling emptying of the upon gauge to
sources
error
tanks.
large tanks are used as in these processes it is well provide a printed sheet for each liming-tank,on which
When to
the
workman
and
when
should
he finishes
record
is correct, and
account
of the volume
of the
data
the
filled with
of tanks
number
juiceshould
time
when
he
begins filling
and the volume filling a tank
these
With
used.
lime
the
note
correction
of the milk
to
of lime.
of
ascertain
can
juice,whether
also the
also be
chemist
of milk
the
the
workman's
be
applied
The
on
temperatiu'e
occasionallynoted.
of the Juice. ^The juice may ing readily be strained through a perforated brass plate,containof the linkholes to the square 324 round inch,by n^ eans trash -elevators,now belt strainers and so generally used. AiUomatic
Measurement
"
thorough straining facilitates the measurement juice,though it will not usually admit of the use of This
automatic
The cold
juice,as it flows from of
sources
error
for such One meand
semi-automatic
or
of of
indicated measurement
thi^most a
apparatus such in Fig. 86. This
as
of
measurement
the
eliminates mai^y mills,, o^ the in the preening paragraph. Apparatus of the juiceis but httle used. "
of tanks
that
meters.
the
reliable methods
combination
of the
described
and
of measurement
automatic
an
farther
and
on
is
by recording illustrated
requirestwo tanks with an overflow from to the other, and very large dischargerpipes and one automatic registers, Ik" discharge- and preferably two be changed e^^her by h^nd or automatically. inlet valves may When changed automaticaUy the valves are operated by of electrical floats or by mechanism put in action by,means method
.
devices. a.
Measurement process cell. A
^The diffusion of the,juice in diffusionwork. of the juice from Qach requires the measurement
water-gauge
"
should
be
attached
to
the
measuring-
318
CHEMICAL
tank.
A
This
measurement.
exact
by
of
means
been
have
devised
method
register The
workmen
The
below,
take
pride
one
in
a
by
direct
ftll calculations
of
sugaf-house
of
locating
the
volume
errors
and
but
of in
the
amount
It
of
consists
essentially of A
means
of
a
free
float vrire
in or
of
errors.
erf juice is of
ia the
losses.
juice
the rate a
the chain
undue
only
of fuel.
baas
An
is of
not
illustrated
juice drawn, and
clockwork. oy
the cost
mcrease
convenient.
moat
record-sheet
preventing
Horsin-D6on,
of
the
weighing,
Irregularitiesof dilution sugar,
of
automatic
weight of the juice derived
or
its volume,
little juice.
the
together mth
is
The
great importance.
very
the
preventing
to
too
or
registration of tlie amount
automatic
of
sa.
suggested above,
described
view
a
much
too
Pta.
The
with
urement meas-
methods
raeasurenient
accurate
drawing
Several
float.
espedally
the
than
reliable
more
ordinary the
more
from
batteryman
is
an
for
but diffusion-juice, the
gauge-tube facilitates noting the
float in the
colored
WOBK.
SUGAH-HODSE
OP
CONTROL
cspedal and
of
value
losses
automatic
lilg.86,
with
a
drum,
ol
ratus appa-
registers the and
all delays.
recording cylmder revolved meaSuring-tank
in
tion. irregular dilu-
occasion
drawing
neariy edge knowl-
accurate
The
in
of
from
is which
by
connected revolves
WEIGHT
pinion, which
is attached
turn
THE
or
to
small
a
arm,
When
the
juice'enters the tank
drum,
and
by
a
line
of the
reason
the
on
parts, corresponding
12
each
part is subdivided
should
also be
may
attached
be
corrected
for
lifts,revolves
pinion the penciltraces The
hours
is divided
paper
of two
watches;^
The cylinder spaces. It is obvious that this
mill-work, in which
in
the
"
it
case
suitable measuring-tank.
a
its volume
juice from
be
to
Weight of the Juice.
The
and
hours.
used
pendL
a
float
the
to
carries
the
5-minute
into
twelve
every
once
instrument
the
rack
which
paper-coveredcylinder.
into
revolves
319
SIRUP.
is a falls; on the shaft of the dnun in revolving engages a rack; this latter in
float rises
the
when
OF
In
"
and
expansion
calculating the weight of should density, the volume
correspond with conditions of the graduation of the hydrometer. In using the Brix spindles,which are graduated to give the density of the solution at 17)^ C. as compared with water at this t^npera* ture, the volimie
weight
The
of
of the cubic
a
juice should be corrected foot of water
17J**C, is 62.2795
gallon,of whibh
there
These
may
numbers
juice under
the
lbs.,and
If
per
are
United
States
cubic
conditions.
hydrometers
ture, tempera-
foot,is 8.3255 lbs. in calculatingthe weight of the
be used
above
the
of
171" C.
to
the normal
at
that
7.4805
are
facilitate these calculations the
to
table
A
(page 495). graduated
is
the
to
given
to
temperature
adopted by the International Chemical Congress, The the volume to 4" C. of the juice should be corrected
standard
weight of
cubic foot of water
a
methods
The
of the
and
Measurement
193.
used
sirup is not
at 4"
C. is 62.3565 of
Weight
lbs.
the
Sirup.
juice apply with sirup. The usually required,except in taking for
of the stock of the material
sirup in his method
in process.
Deerr
uses
the
"
weight account
weight
calculatingthe available sugar.' in view of imIt is the present tendency of the factories, provements that have been made in the defecation,to hold the pan the sirup only long enough to meet requirements. of
of
" '
"
-
^The ftre *
iniervals between
termed
"
the
hours
6
to
12
a.m.,
watches."
Bui. 41. Hawaiian
Sugar Planters'
Expt. Sta.
12
to
6
p.u.,
'
"
etc.,
320
CHEMICAL
This
makes
OF
CONTROL
SUGAR-HOUSE
routine
accurate
WORK.
difficult
measurement
if
feasible. be
sirup miist
The
occasionallymeasured for the
in process
of the sugar
taking
in
account
this purpose the tanks should be gauged iEtndthe volume per inch of depth In these measurements it is more convenient be tabulated. the "inches
to note
and
out"
For
reports.
run
figurethe sirup in the tank
by
difference.
with
the
factories. direct be
weighing
observed
involved
Weight
of the
accuratelymeasure
Massecuites.
weigh a massecuite methods of manufacture prevailing in modem is discharged into the massecuite When cars,
is difficult to
"It
and
Measurement
194.
may
in
be
resorted
taring the
or
to, but
empty
cars.
special care The
must
labor
extra
the
in
weighing, and the difficultyin securing in most satisfactorylaborers, usually prevent this work factories. It is also
impracticable to accuratelymeasure it is discharged directly into the
when
mixers
weight The
or
can
The
centrifugal
Under these conditions the crystallizers. only be calculated approximately. (See page 345.)
in
the
mixer
and
especially in
should be made crystallizers immediately on massecuite,on account of its increase in volume or
cuite masse-
into
measurements
further
the
the
striking the after
stirring
crystallization.
measurement
only required
or
at the end
weight of the of
"
a
run"
or
is
massecuite
usually
period for calculating
In very quantity of sugar in process of manufacture. in these when measurements, large factories the errors of carefullymade, are so small as compared with the amount be neglected. in process that they may material
the
A
sample of
the
massecuites
should
be
drawn, when
ing, strik-
calculations analyses for use in making the necessary of and for the guidance of the sugar-maker in the conduct the pan-work. chemist should from time to 106. -Sugar-weights.-^The for
time^xheck per
the
package
may
scales
dry white
are
sugar,
weighing of the sugar, since a small error Automatic appreciably affect his calculations. coming i.e.,
into
extensive
granulated
sugar.
use
An
in
weighing
empty
ba^
321-
SUGAR-WEIGHTS.
forms
does
and
packages,
scales
with
away
for
allowance
other
class of tare.
reliable
weights. The workmen at the scales usually fill the packages to "down" weight, and where sugar is packed very fast this to a large quantity in the course surplus weight may amount the and add of to the manufacturing season, apparent
These
mechanical
give
using this
when counterpoise,
part of the
a
losses.
Dependable These
use
the
into
''dribble''
in
This
hour.
the nature
from
and
successive
method
is
very
"Libra"
be
Molasses.
scales
occludes
^The
urement meas-
ing by difficulties arisis very
Molasses
the containers,making uncertain.
tank
a
"
itself.
slowly from
Further,
considerable quantitiesof air. the
question of
definition
a
This of
the
gallon of final molasses. that
has
been
reduced
reboilingis readilymeasured
on
horizontal air occluded
page
in the 498
with
when
factory control. for the measurement
cylindricaltanks varies with
the
water
in the tanks.
weighed in tank-cars
importance
given
the
accompanied
in
of air raises
Molasses
its
and
of the material
measurement
commercial
is
drains
molasses
occlusion
should
type of these scales
bags of 325 lbs. of the of weighing reduces
of the
of the molasses
to
adjust the
to
80
Richardson's
loss.''
Measurement
195a.
heavy
than
sug^.
to regulate the flow of
quantity. One more
raw
in Cuba.
use
viscous
for
weighing-hopper and
accurately weigh per
made
now
are
arrangement
the
''undetermined are
scales
last small
or
sugar
raw
automatic
mechanical
a
sugar
will
very
preparatory Final molasses
possible,on A
account
table"
"wantage
of the molasses
(tank-cars). The
container,the method
of
amount
of
in of
filling period measuring. In an experiment by the writer,a molasses weighed less than 11 lbs. per U. S. gallon, measured immediately after filling and the air-free weight of the same tank-car molasses a 12 lbs. This indicates the importance of experimental was data as a basis of calculation of the weight of the molasses in meeting local conditions. A float measurement, using a float,is the most satisfactoryfor molasses stored in copper very large tanks.
it and
the
that
elapsesbetween
and filling
322
CONTROL
CHEMICAL
OF
MILL
Mill
SUGAR-HOUSE
WORK.
EXTRACTION.
quantity of juice or sugar removed from the cane by the mills,the mill extraction,is usuallyexpressed in two ways, viz.,(1) The weight percentage the cane of the mixed juice calculated to terms of the on density of the normal juice. This expression is gradauUy being superseded by the second, which has become quite in analytical and reliable through improvements milling extracted methods. in the juice (2) The weight of sucrose in the cane. This number of the weight of sucrose per cent 196.
its
Extraction.
The
"
only to the fact that it directly indicates the sucrose extraction,but also because it is less influenced by the variations in the composition of the cane. the direct analysis This number was formerly based upon ewes
of the
increasinguse
cane
or
a
upon
not
derived
number
sucrose
assumption that the juiceas it exists in the composition. (1) Extraction Juice. the
Divide
"
Weight Terms
in
the
weight of the
weight of and
cane
in the incorrect
cane
is of uniform
of the Cane
diluted
or
mixed
and
Normal
juice (169) by
point off for percentage,
to
tain ascer-
dilute extraction ; calculate the dilution per from the dilute (1H)7) and subtract this number
the per cent cent
cane
extraction
number.
juiceper
normal
cent
(2) Extraction in the Cane
and
The
in
remainder
is
the
extraction
of
cane.
PercentageTerms
the Extracted
Juice.
of the Weights of Sucrose Calculate
"
the
weights of
in the diluted
juice and in the bagasse. The weight of the bagasse is ascertained by subtracting the weight of the diluted juice from the sum of the weights of the cane and sucrose
saturation-water. extracted the
cane.
in the weights of sucrose in juice and the bagasse is the weight of sucrose The weight of sucrose in the extracted juicedivided
by that in the extraction
cane
number
the extracted
calculations
and
sum
the
in terms
of the
quotient multipliedby 100 is the of the
sucrose
in the
cane
and
in
juice.
(3) Extraction water
The
are
in
without Saturation. Dry Milling^i.e.,
similar to those of (1) and
of dilution need
"
(2) except that
The no
be considered.
methods Example illustrating
of
calculatingthe extraction:
324
CHiaMCAL
times
used
SUGAR-HOUSE
OP
CONTROL
supplying information
in
WORK.
adjusting
for
the
mills: Juice extracted
(per cent fiber in bagasse cent fiber in the cane)-t- per cent fiber in the bagasse "per is subject to error This method XIOO. arising from the difficulty experienced in sampling the bagasse as it passes Saturation.
198.
quantity of
An
weight of the to the
open
same
or
by
only
accurate
is sometimes
estimation of the water
^The
"
bagasse can
certaintyby weighing
inferential method
an
Imbibition.
used in saturatingthe
with
measurement.
the
=
Maceration.
water
determined
by
cane
mill to miU.
from
be
cent
per
similar to that used
in
made
estimating
Inferential m^^thods for the water
cane.
are
objectionsas those for the weight of the
cane.
The the
on
should
water
calculated
cane
to
over
and
in Java
it should
or
be
measured
and
culated cal-
percentage should be in terms
cane.
dilution in terms
The
The
actuallyweighed and its percentage
weight. The
weight of the
of the
be
of the normal
the Hawaiian
percentage of water
juiceis used largely
Islands to indicate the saturation. on
the
weight of the
cane
is also used
in Hawaii. Saturation the
per cent
cane
=
weight of the
waters-
weight of
XIOO.
cane
Dilution
juice (Brix of normal juice" Brix of diluted juice) -s-Brix of diluted juiceXIOO. There confusion is much sugar-chemists in the among nicthod of stating the amount ,of saturation-water used. The author suggests the adoption of the expression *'Per calculated from the density for the water cent dilution as of the juices,since this represents the water, in terms of the total juice, that must actuallybe evaporated on account per
cent
normal
=
"
of the
use
of saturation.
from *'Per cent
For
the
saturation-water,
its weight and that of the cane,
saturation"
house reports, in
or
''maceration"
the
as
culated cal-
expression Sugar-
is suggested.
the quantity of water used,should indicating employ both the expressions''Percent dilution" and. "Per cent
L
saturation."
control of the
The
of moderate
analysis of
The
work,
in its stead
or
the
pan
If
cut
strike is to
and
to
latter to
the
massecuite
be
drawn
of the desired
purity.
boiled,the purity of ihe above
be
of
that
a
juice,and that of the
the
of
daily routine
in the
made
as
quantity
produce
into
accuracy.
analysisof
the
indicate the
molasses
a
sirup
the
"
requires crystallizers
and
vacuum-pans
rapid analyticalwork
Crystallizers.
and
of Vacuum-pans
Control
109.
SUGAR-BOILING.
THE
OF
CONTROL
325
SUGAR-BOILING.
THE
OF
CONTROL
molasses
the
be
to
cuite masse-
boiled-in,supply
quired quantity of each of these reof a certain purity. These to produce a massecuite cient made calculations are by the followingformula, with suffi-
for
data
the
calculatingthe
for the purpose: accuracy Let 100=total weight of massecuite
purity of the sirup,or, in the
F="
that
of
case
left in the
massecuite
of the
strike;
in the
strike,
cut
a
pan;
boiled-in; p"puiity molasses to M*= purity of the required massecuite; a: percentage by weight of that part of the strike of molasses; to be formed be
"=
100
percent age of the strike
*-x=
from
or
to
be derived
from
sirup
previous boiling;
a
(P-M)
100 "*" ^"^
i"
r
"
V
proportionsof the materials used in making
The of
"
mixture
certain
a
also be quickly calculated by the purity may It is not feasible in pan-work method, page 347.
diagram to base
the calculations
actual
on
weights. The
approximate
densities of the massecuite to be boiled in
A
a
for example, and footing, should,however, be considered.
sample of the mixed
massecuite
lasses mo-
brought to the laboratory immediately the strike is dropped. A portion of this should be dissolved in water
Brix,'and
15" A
second and
its apparent portion should be the
should
the
to form
be
a
solution
of about
purity should be determined. fugal purged in a laboratory centri-
purity of the molasses
be
determined
as
above. If
dry lead defecation is used
in this
work, the labor
of
326
CHEMICAL
WORK.
SUGAR-HOUSE
OP
CONTROL
the apparent coefficient of purity may calculating 526. table, by the use of Home's page
be avoided
FiQ. 87.
The
puritydata
molassed samples be should to- the promptly sent superintendent and the pan-boiler. All mixed strikes,especiaUy those
of the massecuites and
purity, should
lowest
the
of
be
in this way. The relation the between purity of the
controlled
and
massecuite from
it in
the molaisses
purged
the
diately laboratory,immeafter boiling,is a valuable guide in boiling low-purity mixed strikes.
Convenient
are centrifugals in Fig. 87, and shown a filtering Thi" filt^* is indevice in Fig. 88. expensive
and
efficient. It is
very
funnel,'sparable at the ing. ground joint,A, to facilitate clean-
a
copper
The
filteringsurface is of oentrifugallining-sieve having about Pjq
braces.
625
round
holes
The
sieve
must
gg
TJie funnel
is used
in connection
per
be
square
inch.
supported by with a vaeuum-
327
INVERSION.
filtering flask with
the
or
yields
good
indicates
the
Inversion.
200*
the
from
sion, and
which
varies
little if any
is
in
limed
neutrality
to
changes
aUy
Inversion
the
inversion to
the
of
The
phenol.
some
adds
weaker
organic acids
of the
inverting with
inorganic salts and latter feebly, exercise an
salts
Many
alone
The
in
the
of
of
equal parts
The
ulose.
the
defecation,
levulose
and
and
the
dark
products. of the
whether
indicate
"
of the
In cane-sugar in
brevity
the
action
on
sucrose.
invert-sugar,* is
two
viz.
sugars,
these
is often
more
color
has
the
products
has
usually
in this book.
place and
other
called
the
56.
the The
composit de-
position decom-
no
glucose
wiU or
lev-
alkaline
to
been
examination,
invert-sugar are
in the
of the ratio of the
taken
in
heat
juice is due
there
and
decomposed.'
noticeable the
of
and
posed com-
in page
given
lime
in part
is very
dextrose
:
are
sugars
by the
upon
inversion
Juice and
all.
organic acids, though
of
juices,etc. under
this expression is used
great rapidity
inversion,
Provided
manufacture,
or
air.
glucose,a comparison
sucrose
gradu-
water-solution, but
of this sugar
decomposition defecation
acted
are
raw-
juice is
in
properties of
sugars
In
greater
a
scarcely at
invertive
sucrose
of
presence
product of
These
will invert
the
by all acids, to
mineral
inver-
to
condition
alkaline
sucrose
is caused
sugar
delays, there
since
sucrose,
of
and
rapidly
of serious
event
neutrality in the storage-tanks.
degree, the
Heat
due
sucrose
to
less
the
loss of
a
white
the acidity of the juice.
with
factories,except
sugar
of
manufacture
is often
there
cane,
the
In
"
control-tesJls, will
the
and
pans
these
sugar-boilersare obtaining the material are capable of yielding.
whether
indicate
results
best
low-purity massecuite
a
with
work
following the
usually
When
poor.
the
will indica^^^e whether
immediate purging, it high-purity molasses, on boiling. A few days' experience with the poor
a
pans,
factory.
of control
or
is made
Connection
plate.
the
of
this method is
pap-boiling
bell-glassand system
vacuum
often
Very
a
to
usually
not.
reducing
gittCose, and
The
stances subfor
828
CONTROL
CHEMICAL
difference
between
inversion
in
except
From
the
above
in
the
general
a
materials
raw
detected,
however,
and
be
will
loss of
that
detected
It
glucose usually be
and
can
balance
often
not
sucrose
estimated
and
sucrose
products.
losses
as
of
measure
a
"
quantities of
and
percentages
the
always
cannot
not
way.
renoiarks,it is evident
through inversion from
glucose ratios is
the
WORK.
SUGAR-HOUSE
OF
one
another. In
of inversion,
using the followingformulae,for the calculation the
above
inverted
Sucrose
should
considerations in
the
be
evaporation
kept in view: etc.
"
The
inversion,
^
in
except
diffusion-battery,may
the
formula
following extended Louisiana Let
Experiment
Dr.
calculated
William
by
Stubbs
Station: unit
of
juice;
6=
glucose per
unit
of
juice;
c=*
sucrose
per
unit
of
sirup
or
massecuite, etc.;
rf^
glucose per
unit
of
sirup
or
massecuite, etb.;
of
juice (nounds);
sucrose
=
^=the
s
total
total
=
gf=
the
of the
per
a
Let
of
be
weight
removed
sucrose
(pounds); total glucose removed (pounds) ;
a;i= total inversion; a;2=lossin concentration
in the
sugars
and
by
losses
in the
sugars
and
by
losses
of the
sirup
juice to
or
1st
^
massecuite; afj" loss in concentration
of the
juice to massecuite.
_^^E(ad-ch) -\-cg-ds] ^^^
""''
100c
(2) When concentration reduces
neither of
sucrose
+ 95d
nor
glucose is removed,
jiiiceto sirup or
1st
95^(arf-c") "2
= '
100c
+ 95d
in the
massecuite, the formula '
to
as
329
INVERSION.
(3) When the
and
there is
formula
in the sugars,
glucose removed
no
reduces
^"0,
to
9^E(ad-ch)-d8] ^'"^ 100c + 95d
following generalformulae
The
Clements,
B.
formula
U.S.N.,
modifications
are
of
by Lieut. Dr.
A.
Stubbs'
:
'
"
"
"
"
(1)
for inversion
inverted
af=sucrose
cent
per
in the original
sucrose
juice; "S=
sucrose
i7=
in
removed
sucrose
in the
rj"per
in
in sugars
by
and
glucose in the juice-f- per the juiceX 100; cent
cent
losses per
cent
the originaljuice;
cent
r2=per
per
originaljuice;
glucose removed sucrose
by losses
and
sugars
glucose in
etc., -5-per cent
the
cent
massecuite
in
sucro"e
or
molasses,
in ditto X 100.
sucrose
^lO0(r^-r,^g)-r,S 10000
i"""" =
105.263.
95
(2) Multipljdngthe above equation by a, the per in the originalsolution,we obtain x in terms sucrose the weight of the juice;
cent
of
rz-Vr+g-rJS x=^a-
10000 95
(3) Calculation re
=
inversion
/^i*=percent in
^,=per
per
cent
sucrose
in terms
of the
glucose:
juice; in
the
juice-5- per
cent
glucose
ditto; cent
4-
of inversion
per
sucrose
cent
in
the
sirup
or
massecuite, etc.,
glucose in ditto;
in the removed "S3=sucrose glucose in the juice;
sugars,
etc., per
unit
of
330
"7ji=glucoaeremoved
WORK.
SUGAR-HOUSE
OF
CONTROL
CHEMICAL
in the
of
unit
etc., per
sugars,
glucose in the juice; 6"glucose
juice.
cent
per
Xf^b
100^
100 1.05263. 95 901.
the
for
Formulae
Calculation
the
of
in
Inversion
Diffusion-battery.^ in the
diflfusion-juice
pe"
cent
sucrose
per
cent
glucose in the diffusion-juice
per
cent
sucrose
in the
normal
juice
per
cent
glucose
in the
normal
juice
per
cent
glucose in the diffusion juice;
'
"
6= x=b
"
=inversion
~7~"
1+
in
the
'
battery
cent
per
Fjj '
"
95
diffusion-juice. (2)
cent
a=per per r
=
in the
sucrose
in the
diffusion-juice
sucrose
in the
diffusion-juice
glucose
in the
normal
sucrose
7"7 m
glucose
cent
^
X
'
'
per
cent
per
cent
per
cent
-^
r2=-
x=a
diffusion-juice;
"
!"^=
100
'
'
juice
p^-T-XlOO; the
in version
normal
juice
in
battery
the
per
"
cent
Jiffusion-juice. (3) [p" (100" e)P].9j"xe=in version
diffusion-juice. p=per glucose juice; P""per cent *" Fonnulas
(1) and
(2)
are
cent
in
baaed
the
upon
in
the
glucose normal Dr.
battery in
juice Stubbs*
-r-
cent per-
diffusion
100;
formula.
e
=
332
CHEMICAL
CONTROL
OF
SUGAR-HOUSE
apparatus, conveniently arranged
of
the
at
If the
sample
with
ends
cups
at
systematicallythrough
go
factory drawing samples measuring the quantity of material
juice,.etc., and
the the
various
should
begin with
the
manufacture.
of
stages
juice and
the
all material
include
must
ments measure-
midnight, for example, the '^^ant,and the laboratory helper, provided and a measuring-rule, should at that time
ass.
an
noting the
for
stations.
factory day
chemist,
WORK.
This with
end
in process,
at
stock-taking
the the
even
of
and
sugar, in
sugar
the
convenient the to measure centrifugals. It is usually more depth of the empty space in the tanks, rather than that of small measuring-cup for samthe liquor. By using a very pling,! cupful) for example, may be drawn from a. quarter one of a tank of sirup,two cupfuls from half of a tank; and so on, thus forming a composite sample that will represent the
If the
accuracy.
each
from
drawn
estimated
of
and
in
material
be
with
the
of
the
sirup in
ascertained
from
value.
sugar
beginning
and
in the pans. until the
the
of
vessels
of
time
to time
as
the a
quantity
is in
be
may
The
use.
measured
may
when
be calibrated The
season.
be
density
should
evaporator
be
guide in calculating the
.
with
Thus
the sugar
molasses
be used
they reach and
quantity
constant
a
apparatus
the
By prcfarrangement sirup (meladura) and the stock
the
or
of
degree
sizes,the
apparatus
multiple effect tanks
at
the
fair
a
accordingly. multiple effects should
the
considered
when
liquidated into water
sirup with
of different
are
juice in
run, the
the
be varied
may
to
run
tanks must
(volume
The
from
of
composition
average
to
these the
may
be omitted
as
such
complete strikes of massecuite massecuites
or crystallizers
molasses
boiler,certain tanks of
be
need if
not
be
from
then
measured
immediately purged,
If separately considered. this arrangement is not feasible, the sugar boilers should,at the depth of sirup and molasses the whistle signal,note in the tanks and -indicate the approximate depth of -massecuite in the pan by chalk marks. The condition of the massecuite should be noted or, preferably, proof-stick samples should be drawn for anedysis. The quantity of sugars in thecentrifsugar
may
BUN
333
REPOBTS.
ugals,hoppers and bins should be noted,ftlsothe last serial package number. Stock-taking in if the above
a
When
the
be followed.
scheme
accurate
as
largefactory need require but the stock taken
were
as
report is called for
run
stock-taking
to include
be
known
factory will be shut down day later for cleaning or other reason.
a
that
are
tically prac-
a
certain
date,
should facilitated^
work
may
results
during a shut-down.
the
or
of
The
utes min-
few
a
the
it be
day in advance
a
In this event
the
ground before or after the date is either carried as stock and figured to sugar or its product is deducted the case as require. may data and samples and the Having secured the necessary be made analysis of the latter,the calculations may as cane
follows: Juice
and
"
ahead
of manufacture
estimated
be The
from
available sugar
with
the
Since
Sirup.
juicehas
all the processes sugar value should
raw
it,its commercial the previous experience of the factory. of
method
given.on
page
305 in connection
number be used. If there is no record efficiency may of the previous experience of the factory, the yield may be based calculations by the commercial formula, upon sugar the probable or an estimated 342, taking into consideration page an
loss in
especially to figures are
the first run
more
These
manufacture.
of the
accurate, and
remarks
apply
factory,after which there is
further
more
the
run
experience in
the
factory to guide one. A slightlyhigher yield may be expected from the sirup than raw of its having been purified. This juice on account is also true of the clarified juice. The table,page 515, is a convenient
guide in making these estimates.
Massecuites boiled
without be
may
and
Sugars. "
the
calculat"ed
addition as
in the
^If the of cases
massecuite
has
molasses, its sugar of
the
juice and
been value
sirup.
If, however, molasses has been boiled-in or mixed with the in crystallizers, the following fcmnuia should be massecuite used: Let
a?=per
cent
of commercial
obtained B
from
(sugar-value)to be the massecuite; sugar
""degree Brix of the massecuite;
334
CHEMICAL
Let
CONTROL
P"
of the massecuite; polarization
p=
polarizationof the commercial
S
fiolidsper unit of the commercial
w
WORK.
SUGAR-HOUSE
OF
sugar; sugar;
ssooefficientof purity of the final molasses.
M
lOOP-BM Then
x
= .
p-SM V
This
formttla
gives
Brix and
true polarization,
calculated
It will be
With
results differ but
that
noted
in these
calculation
If,however,
is
the
true
low-purity massecuites, the actual yield
little from
If but
simply
gra-de of
one
to know
it
as
of values
is
simplifies
is made,
sugar
grade is made,
one
final molasses
the
is advisable
substitution
a
than
more
purity of
This
estimates.
calculations.
the
the
centrifugals.
at the
used
when
used.
purity are
polarization,etc.
apparent
only
For the purposes it is usuallysufficiently the to use accurate
of the estimates
the
results
accurate
the
in the formula.
e.g., 96"^ugar
and
in what
2ds, it is necessary proportions these sugars and made, allotingits proportion to the 96" test sugar are
reducing the remainder In reporting estimates in addition and
second
sugar
for the
period or run, it is customary general statistics of the manufacture
the
to
of the
terms
to
the
analyticaldata,
per
cent
report the
to
yield of
sugar
follows:
as
1st sugar tyj
Total
Total
The
tt
It
It
tl
t(
"
*'
"
"
''
"
since
in
in the
sucrose
juice.
ii
It
tl
tt
tt
tt
tt
*'
*'
"
"
tt
tt
tt
tt
tl
"(
occasionallyreported as follows: of sucrose in the juice.
is also per
cent
It
it
tt
tt
"
"
"
"
order
figuresmust polarization.
very
a
to
statement
be
be
the
The
of
H
is not
This
cent
per
H
Ist sugar
Total
retained
sucrose
it
sugar
nj
cane.
tt
1st sugar, t\J
of the
tt
^"
**
f*
"
*'
''
""
satisfactorystatement comparable with those
reduced
to
terms
of sugars
of of
the other
of the
yield, runs same
'
,
giving the
sucrose
retained in the
conuner-
^ LOSSES
OP
SUGAR
IN
THE
335
MANUFACTtTRE.
in the juioe"6ho\vBat a cial sugar per ceht of the sucrose glance, in comparisons, the relative quality of the woric.
Final
is in very generaluse. In msaiy factories that are
of statement
form
This
molassea,
"
favorable
located at
markets, the final molasses
a
distance
from
to
this only oheok the chemist has upon Where the molasses is his analytical work. is which into lai^getanks, from shipments are made
waste
material
pumped from
of the
time, data
to
composition
run
the
and
time
are
often
may
be
total volume
obt^ned.
and
average
It is often diflBcultto
accurately distributingthis product the various runs, or periods. among The average composition is best ascertained from analyses of samples of each shipment, but in addition to such anal"iGies of the molasses as frequent control-tests should be made the weight of the it is puniped from the factory. Where molasses is ascertained by weighing it in tank-cars, these should them, as owing to cars always be tared before filling molasses workmen of the the the viscosity frequently fail the tanks. to entirelyempty of In the Manufaeture. Losses ^The 203. Sugar information
secure
for
"
usual
of loss
cake, and bagasse,filter-press in the evaporation. through decomposition and entrainment Other are by inversion, fermentation,and possiblesources sources
are
so-called mechanical
the
in the
or
undetermined
losses.
bagasse. ^The loss in the bagasse is calculated from estimated weight of the material and its analysis.
The the
The
"
weight of the bagasse is between
often
estimated
as
the
ference dif-
the
and that of the weight of the cane normal juice. This does not usually give a correct result when saturation is practiced,since the bagasse may leave the
third mill heavier than
it would
be otherwise.
In
this
if the
be known, the weight of the saturation-water bagasse is the weight of the cane + weight of saturationwater" weight of the mixed diluted juice. It may that the weight of the saturation-water is occur case
not
known.
used. B
In
Fiber
bagasse
per
this event
per cent
cent cane.
cane
an
inferential method
be
fiber per cent bagasse uncertain quantity in this
XlOO-^ The
mu^t
calculation is the percentage of fiber in the
cane.
336
FUter-pressCake,
BUQAB-HOUSE
OF
CONTROL
CHEMICAL
^The loss of
"
WORK.
is calculated
sucrose
from
analysisand weight of the press-cake. The from weight of the press-cake is usually estimated of several filterthe actual average -weight of the contents this is not When a practicable, the cake from presses. of the press is weighed from time frame or single chamber the
time
to
obtain
to
an
weight and
average
this
niimber
is
of cakes in the press, to obtain multiplied by the number lbs. the total weight. The cake weighs*approximately 60-62 per
ft.
cu.
is
There
loss of
a
This
cloth.
filt^
It will vary to 0.6 lb.
or
with
the
unknown
filtercloth.
per
more
Inversion.
usually included
the
by
methods. quantity varies with the filter-press from almost nothing with double filter-pressing
This
losses.
is
juice absorbed
in the
sucrose
Inversion
"
estimated
be
may
by the formulse
glucosehas been destroyed. It may also be estimated by reducing the analyses to a dry basis. For example: A sirup has a coefficient of purity of 86, that on
327, provided no
page
is 86 per
of its content
cent
massecuite
evaporation to indicates
that
0.5 per
cent
This
inverted.
or
is sucrose; falls to 84.5.
of solid matter
after
the
This
purity
of its solid matter
has
been
the solid matter
assumes
to
stroyed debe
a
constant.
is
Glucose
usuallydestroyed when
therefore materials balance
be obtained
can as
actual
well
as
a
sucrose
to
some
in the
extent
facture, manu-
calculated
weights of the it is preferable to figurea glucose balance to obtain light on the or
losses. used in Changes in the saline coefficient are sometimes tracing losses either by inversion or mechanically. Zimmer^ based upon the persistenceof certain mann suggests a method
page 349.) the ash and beaker in the
and
throughout the manufacture. {Se^ the the determines He sucrose by Clerget method
soluble
of the
salts
sulphated ash. He transfers the the lime,etc.,with ammonium precipitates as
presence
of
ammonia,
then
washes
out
and determines sulphates left in the precipitate
"^Int.Sugar
Journ., 1914, 16, 383.
ash
the
their
to
a
oxalate soluble
quantity
TEST
by- difference.
BOOKS
AND
calculations
The
337
RECORDS.
illustrated by
are
of
one
examples: Mill-juioe* Sucrose, 10.5 per cent; soluble sulphates in the ash, 0.31 per cent; 0.31 : 10.5 1 :x and x"33.87, the ratio for juice. Sirup: Sucrose, 46.3 per cent; soluble sulphate in the ash, 1.38 per cent; 1.38 :46.3"1 : y and y 33.55, the ratio for sirup. The change in the ratio from juice to sirup is 33.87" 33.55=0.32, corresponding to 0.32 per Zimmermann's
=
s=
unit
sulphates. Then
of loss
33.87
:
0.32
100
"
:x"0.94,
per
in the
juice. This is evidently a very exaggerated example. The soluble sulphates are much higher than the usual total ash and the cent
on
sucrose
loss is excessive. this class of
This
is
method
to call attention
quoted
to
investigations.
ErUraininent.
^The loss
"
by entrainment
be estimated
may
This loss is estimated from the by Norris' table,page 434. and its analysis of the water flowing from the condenser weight as calculated from the temperature changes and the instructions evaporated. Detailed arc quantity of water
printed with
the table. LABOBATORY
Test
204. a
Books
set of books
and
FACTORT
AND
and forms
RECORDS.
Records. without
It is difficult to
"
plan
knowing something of the
needs
of the owners, the force of chemists available for con^ trol and whether this control is to be partialor fairlycomplete. The
reports include:
usual
slip for the Manager, Superintendent and Engineer, giving preliminary data of the mill work and control analyses of the juices,the output of and
sugar
the fuel
(1)
consumption;
A
this should
be
supplemented the analysis of the
by frequent reports to the Engineer on (2) The preliminary report should bagasse. what include the
termed
be
may
data
statistics.
This
losses.
methods
(3) Run
of all data
including
a
The
''operatingreport,''which
covering the entire line of chemical
manufacture.
r^sum6
an
be followed
sucrose
data
should
mill and
reports at stated
collected balance
shot^idbe
of manufacture
include
and
both and
for the a
full
should
control
and
ing manufactur-
intervals,giving a run
statement
enough
supply the
by
owners
to
and
date, of yield and to
indicate a
the
permanent
338
CHEMICAL
record
CONTROL
of methods.
OF
SUQAR-HOUSE
Working and
lost time
should
also be
portion of the factory's capacity is being utilized. in (4) Laboratory records: (a) Used the (b) Extraction analytical work, figures, etc (c) Records of pan-work, (d) Unit^book, used in recording the m quantities of materials, products and by"^roduots and
reported to
indicate
WORK.
what
calculatingweighted Printed
routine
forms
averages.
should
be
laboratorywork.
supplied for
the
entries
in
the
large space should be provided in these forms for the figuringwith a view to tracing errors. The of printed fonns also promotes use systematic work. A
loose-leaf binder
should or
in
be used
is convenient
each
specialbooks
It is advisable
A
day. and
All
never
for these
figuringshould be
on
and
forms on
a
sheet
the sheets
of paper. forms for calculatingand
scraps
have
printed recording mill data, operating and lost time and fuel consumption. A special blank should be posted at the mills fen* reporting the delays and their causes. These figures should
be
to
tabulated
from
time
to
time
for the
use
of the
Manager and the Chief Engineer. The daily laboratory reports, for a fairlycomplete control, should include: (1) Analyses of the diluted,normal culated) (caland residual juices. (2) Fiber and socroee in the cane. (3) Analysis of the sirup. The Brix is for the control of the evaporation and the purity coefiicient for that of the defecation. and molasses (4) Analyses of the massecuites and the work to control the injection of molasses oi the and polarization of the sugars ciystallizers.(5) Moisture The moisture has a bearing on and occasionallyash tests. of the sugar; the polarizationmust the storage qualities meet market requirements; the ash is an additional check upon the of the juice. (6) Analysis of the final m"^as8es purification General
to
meet
ma[rket
lizers and to
control
conditions
and
to
control
centrifugals. (7) Analysis the
loss of sugar.
the pans, crystalof the filter-press cake
(8) Analyses of the
bagasse
frequent intervals, indudmg moisture, fiber,and sucrose (9) Frequ^it examination tests, for mill control. of the the for feed-water for sugar, protection of the boilers. (10)
at
Entrainment
tests in the condenser
water, to protect against carelessness in the evaporationand in the pan-boiling.
CALCULATIONS.*
SUGAR-HOUSE
Introductory.
205. the
chemist
to be
All materials
"
dealt
with
and
by the
composed of sucrose non-sucrose, latter including water, dextrose,levulose,organic non-sugars, are
(ash). Certain of these (marc, etc.) and inorganic matter substances persist throughout the manufacture, others through but one or two stages of it. A knowledge of the proportions in the originalmaterial,prodof these substances ucts by-products, is the
and
basis
algebraicequations,with which
construction
of
yields,quantities,capacities,
calculated.
be
etc., may
for the
the purposes of the usual calculations,in addition to the proportions in which the various constituents are present, For
certain
relations
required, such
often
the
between
constituents
themselves
are
saline coefficient, purity coefficient,
as
constituent of a simple when the original material practicallyunchanged through passes the processes, e. (/.,the fiber in dry milling.
problems
The
etc.
are
very
illustrates the principlesinvolved following formula The water used in in many of the sugar-house calculations.^ dilutes the extracted saturating the bagasse in milling cane The
juice; the of
means
based
equation
an
this dilution
of
percentage
upon
(Brix) of the extracted normal the diluted juice: m Let
100
"
6== B"
100"
a;
=
x
=
the
is fact
ascertained that
the
(undiluted) juice are
by solids
present
weight of diluted juice; degree Brix of diluted juice; degree Brix of normal juice; weight of dilution-water in diluted juice; the weight of normal juice, the
then 100
6=B(100-a;) *
The
mark
and
"
/
a;
"
=
100-100fe/B
is used
to
indicate
=
100(B-6)/B.
division.
340
FOBHTTLA/
DBT-MILLINO
341
is the usual dilution formula and is used because it is
This
the diluted
juicethat
is
weighed
measured.
or
The
value of
multiplied by the percentage of dilute juiceextracted from the cane gives the dilution in terms of the weight of the cane.
X
In
similar way, calculations may the dry matter of the cane,
a
of the
of
constituent Since
of the
numbers
press-cake,the ash
or
a
them
upon
ascertained
analysis
are
calculasugar-house tions approximations, but are usually
for the purposes
sufficientlyaccurate
in sugar
of the results of
absolute,many
based
the fiber
upon
it,etc.
many
not
are
be based
of the
manufacturing These considerations apply especially contnd. to massecuites in whose molasses and be analysis absolute results cannot expected. full work
The
deducing
of
the formulflQ is
followingparagraphs, with
the
in the construction
necessitated
of formulae
to
that
not
are
given
that
or
are
by specialconditions. Fonnula*"
Dry-milling
206.
view
a
usuallygiven in the beginiier assisting
The
fiber
or
is the
marc
constant: Let
weight of the bagasse from
F=the
percentage of the
s
2=
a;
cane;
B "the
F'
(1)
weight of the
the
100=
=
percentage of
in the bagasse;
marc
(2) F'S-IOOF;
100-B;
X
=
100
-
of J3
in
lOOF/F'
(/S07) is noticeable.
whence
B"100F/F';
(1)
100(F'
=
similarityof this formula
dilution
cane; in the cane;
marc
percentage of juiceextracted;
substituting the value
The
100
and
This
F)ir.
-
that
should
be
calculating
for
e2q)ectedsince
(Brix) is diluted and in the other the constant (marc) is concentrated, i.e.,its percentage relation increases. to the bagasse as compared with cane
in the
one
307.
the constant
Dilution
FormulaB."
of the mill- juice in terms
The
formula
of the diluted
been
given in the Introductory (205)
and
the
followingdilution number
or
To
for the dilution mixed
reduce
juices has this number
.
to
percentage
terms
of
342
SUGAI^-HOITSS
of
it vl necessary to multiply the values ively. by the percentages of diluted and normal juice,respectThe dilution per cent normal or undiluted juice is
weight of the
the X
CALCULATIONS.
calculated Let
100 B
X
weight of normal
the
=
6
follows:
as
"
=
=
cane,
juice;
the Brix of the normal
juice; the Brix of the diluted juice; percentage of dilution in
the
of the normal
terms
juice, then
the solids
of the diluted
(Brix) of the normal
juice,6(100+ar) This
weight
100+aj=*the
100
=
B and
is used
niunber
in
juice,and
juiceare =*
x
certain
100
countries
all
in the diluted
found
B/6-
100
sinc^
100(5-6)
=
indicate
to
/6. the
that has been used^ though quantity of macerr.tion-water th"%t has passed in fact it only indicates the part of the water into the juice. Concentratloii and Formulae." 208. Braporation formulae
These
in the
derived
100
Let
6
same
then
100!"
The
those
for dilution
and
are
weight of the juice,etc.;
the
=
the Brix
of the
Brix
juice;
of the concentrate;
percentage, by weight, of
=
the
=
(100-x)B,
(5ee(311.) is derived
evaporation by voliune
of
percentage
evaporated;
water
whence
100(5 -6)/B.
x=
to
way:
=
B^the X
similar
are
as
follows: Let
100 h
B X
then
=
the volume
of the
of the
juice,etc.;
"
the Brix
"
the Brix of the concentrate
=
the percentage,
g
specificgravity; of G
by volume, of
specificgravity;
water
evaporated;
100^6, and
GB(lOO-x) x=^lQO"gh/GBf =
juice of
the
volume
of
water
evaporated.
(See 312.) 200*
Commercial has
a
wide
Sugar
Formulae."
(A)
This
application in the sugar-house control
mula forand
required in crystallisers, capacities
estimation of the
the
in
313
FORMULA.
6U0AB
COMMERCIAL
etc. :
x=the
Let
percentage
yield
commercial
of
of
sugar
polarizationand S per cent dry matter; 100=: the weight of the primary material (massecuite, molasses,etc.)of P polarisationand B per cent p
.
dry M=
purity of the residual molasses; in the molasses; the weight of sucrose
coefficient of
P"px/
100
B"Sx/
100
then
(Brix);
matter
=
the
=
weight of dry
(Brix) in the
matter
mdasses.
Since
the
coefficient of of
percentage
sucrose
purity of
in its
dry
a
matter
sugar we
material
is the
haye
B-Sx/lOO' clearingof fractions,transposing and reducing, lOOP-BM X-
p-tiSM/100' yield of
the sugar
of
100"
commercial
sugar.
as polarisation/
refinery work, the formula
reduces
^"*
If the is
product is refined
customarily assumed
in
to
'
100-M
(B) This
yield
of
formula
sugar
percentages in Let
X
=
from terms
is
applicable in the calculation
massecuites,.molasses, etc.,and of the primary material.
the percentage of commercial eoefiicient and
sugar
of P'
of the
gives
purity
dry matter; the weight of primary material, P its coefficient 100 of purity and B its degree Brix; Af sthe coefficient of. purity of the residual molasses. s:
6 per cent
of
344
calculations.
0nQAR*HonsE
BP/IQO
Then
6x/100
^
the
weight of
=
the
weight of dry
material;
in the
suorose
in the sugar;
matter
I
"
P'bx
_P'
1006a?
X-t:^
^^
the
=
,^^^^,
sucrose
^,
the sugar;
m
10000
100
100X100
.
.
,^ of^ wei^t
weight of solids in the mohisses;
B"bx/lQO^the P'hx
BP
weight of
the
=
in the molasses.
sucrose
10000
100
precedingsugar formula, an equation the coefficient of purity of the residual molasses As
in the
clearing of fractions,transposing and
x^lOO
X"
in the
It is derived
dry
and
let the other in the
x
the
=
matter
dry
matter
take a
above sugar
fonnul"
way,
but
letters have
the
ceding. pre-
is based
upon
cane
The
of
same
meaning
"
=
P 100--
of the
-M "
dry
",
matter
the
per-
in the
apphed in the calculation of the or
''
the
(B),
juice,but
the losses in manufacture
estimate^
in terms
sugar
(Brix)of the residual molasses;
in terms
be
may
the
from
into account
correct
same
whence
centage of anhydrous sugar primary material.
yield of
applications as
previous formula
P'a;-M(100-a;)-lOOP,
The
same
(Brix) ,in the 4"rimary material,
the
as
"
have
we
b
percentage 3deld of anhydrous
Let x^the
100
reducing,
materials:
moisture-free
Then
the
has
formula
upon
is formed:
.
P'-M
(C) This
based
it is necessary to in order to make
available sugar'' formulse (185)
CRYSTALLIZEB
since they take the losses suitable for sueh estimates,
more
are
into
345
CAPACITY.
formulse
These
consideration.
find their chief
uses
in
the yield of sugar in process in massecuites,etc. calculatinfi; The commercial ^10. CrystalliKer Capacity. sugar in used the in f ormulie be estimating required capacity may and molassescertain machinery, notably pans, crystallizers "
tanks, using
solids and
true
in accurate
sucrose
to estimate
work.
quantity of crystalluEer massecuite of 94*^ Brix and 60" purity that would be produced clarified juice of 20" Brix, 18 per cent sucrose and 90** from sis purity, the sugar that has been extracted having an analyof 96" polarization and 99 per cent dry matter: Using it be
Let
formula
required
(A), 1309,
the
have
we
100X18-20X60 ,^"^
X
16.39
=
=
96-99X60/100 sugar
80
solids) matter
13.11
contains
juice
The
The
cane.
therefore
matter,
-V-
ceot
per
sugar
on
16
"
12.98
then
cane,
12.98
=
="
16.39 X. 80
contained
sugar
X.99
juice. Let the juicebe 99
dry
dry
cent
dry
cent
per
cent
per
per
13. 11
=
sugar.
(Brix
matter
3.02, the percentage
of
dry
going into the crystallizer massecuite; 3.02
cane
massecuite
the
.94 =3.21,
of the
20 X. 80*= 16
and
cane
on
weight
weight of the
of the
cent
per
the
of
cent
per
cent
per
Massecuite
cane.
of
lbs. per cubic foot, therefore 3.21 cubic feet massecuite 100 lbs. cane, or -^ 94.4 =0.034 per Massecuite swells considerably, cubic foot per ton of cane. 0.68 Brix
94"
owing
certain
diluted
of volume
0.68+25
from of 25 per
should time so
we
of its crystallization
the
to
of be
94.4
weighs
time
(see page
98) and
time
page
(see
the decomposition
it should An
95).
is safe allowance
cubic
and
for
also
increase
alteration,or
Further, the massecuite the crystallizer about four days, the ii;L
=0.85
remain
have
to cent
per
cent
de:"ending then
salts
sugar
upon
the
0.85X4
feet.
size and =
3.4
type
cubic
of the
feet per
crystallizer, ton
of
cane
is 1850
tons daily milling capacity. If the milling capacity the crystallizer capacity should be 3.4X1850=6290 of cane will depend upon size of the crystallizers The feet. cubic
the
size
of
the
vacuum-pans
and
under
the
usual
con-
346
SUGARHttOUSB
CALCULATIONS.
of 12 feet in diameter
ditions with' pans
striking1000
cubic
1250 cubic feet,would be approximately 1000-1-25 per cent of crystallizers 5 -f, the requirednumber feet; 62904-1250 Allowance to actuallyhold the massecuite. aJso be must mJade for one and to receive massecuite empty crystallizer to be dischargingto the centrifugals, or in all 7 cr"'stalone lizers of about 1250 cubic feet gross capacityeach. This estimate is based upon juice of exceptionallyhigh purity. In actual practicethe estimates should be upon the juiceof the lowest purity that is hable to prevail over extended periodat any time of the manufacturing season. an The lower the initial purity,the largerwill be the quantity massecuite. In actual estimates the true of crystallizer soUds and purityshould be used to avoid errors. Mixed of Massecuites. 211. lasses MoProportion and Sirup. These massecuites should be boiled that desired in the moto a definite purity,depending upon lasses =
=
"
obtained
be
to
from
them.
This
formula
that the densities of
sirupand molasses are the is sufficiently accurate for practical purposes: {A) Let
100
=
P= p=
M
=
x
100"
=
"=
assumes
same.
This
weight of massecuite in the strike; purityof the sirup; purityof the molasses to be boiled4n; purityof the requiredmassecuite; perc^itage by weight of the strike to be formed of molasses; percentage by weight of the strike to be derived from sirup, total
100{P-M) then
aj
=
P-P This is the
formula
purityof
may a
be
appliedwith less accuracy
footingor nucleus
upon
which
a
when
P
strike is to
completed with inolasses. be made with greater facility (B) This calculation may ^ method for mixtures,illustrated in the diaby Cobenze's
be
"
Vta
L
A.
Cobenie,
Nottrand's
der prakt. Photografio., 9th Compendium Annual, 1913, p. 563.
Chemical
ed., p. 379;
j
348
SUGAB-HOUSB
CALCULATIONS.
of measurement;
reduce
the
degree Brix of the juiceto that at the temperature of measurement by means table of corrections,page of Gerlach's 489. Apply the Brix corresponding to this reduced specificgravity number perature at the temto the weight of the cubic foot or gallon of water temperature
of measurement.
Example: 15** Brix
at
Required the wdght of 17.5717.5* C. measured
Degree Brix
of the
Hydrometer
correction
cubic
a
foot
of
at 28** C.
juiceat U.S'' C (page 489)
juice of
15.0'' 15** Brix at
for
28*C
7
corresponding specificgravity at (Sp. Gr."1.05831)
Degree Brix and 28** C
Referring to the table
14
3**
449, a cubic foot of water measured at 28" C. weighs 62.1289 lbs,,therefore 62.1289 X 1.05831 =65.75 lbs.,the weight of juice required. The is well within the limits of accuracy of this simple method error of
at
tank
preferable that all measurements made is be practicable,the temperaat, as nearly as ture of graduation of the hydrometers, thus keeping all errors
minimum.
a
*
Calculations the
used
in
Ash
assumed
and
mineral
to remain
comparison
whether
Based
the
upon
Sucrose,
etc.
Relation These
"
tween bemethods
ascertainingwhether sugar or other matters are in a boiling decomposed and removed ])rocess, for
destroyed or example. The a
page
It is
measurements.
214,
are
on
of
constituents
unchanged the
has
saline been
cf
the
during the
coefficients
materials
process,
are
therefore
(181) should
show
destroyed,and
similarlywhether have been other constituents method A of decomposed. this class must be used with great caution,since very slight lead inaccuracy of analysis or loss of mineral matter may to
an
sucrose
conclusion.
erroneous
should be used
in
The
true
or
Clerget number
comparisons. numbers are Example (allsucrose by the Clerget method) : A clarified juice containiog 15 per cent sucrose, 0.3 per cent ash and
sucrose
50 saline coefficient
was
evaporated
to
sirupcontain-
r RELATION
BETWEEN
50.7
ing
cent
per
coefficient
of
in
less
what
finding
is of
the
and
in
This
sucrose.
juice
is
decrease
coefficient
original
coefficient
the
the
0.29,
saline
a
saline of
sucrose
cent
per
the
the
of
decomposition
of
terms
percentage
coefficient,
saline
indicates
ash
cent
per
349
SUCROSE.
AND
reduction
The
"0.29,
by
ASH
1.02
sucrose,
49.71.
50"40.71
by
THE
in
in
50,
culated calthe
this
case
0.68.
has
method
This
in
manufacture limited
the
C.
sulphates
soluble salts
which
addition ashless
filter
matter
is
an
removed
of
pnd
ash The
sulphates.
I
Xnt.
Sugar
with
The
difference
16,
is
residue
calculations
J.,
is
are
(1014),
made
383^
also
the
storage the
only
since
through
the
with
the
tran^erred and
ash
to
the
an
soluble
water.
The
residue
between
the
original
hot
the
the
of
usual
as
what some-
method,
persist
ash
The
is
utilize
this
ashed
is
washing
this
in
formed
are
in
to
filtering-crucible
alundum
by
ash
cane-sugar
part
a
and
proposes
acid.
weighed.
and
dri(^
weight
or
of
surface
material
sulphuric
of
deposition
sulphated
and
application
*
they
The
manufacture.
is
the
beet-
its
but
evaporating
of
from
the
Zimmermann
A.
H.
in
used
losses, of
fact
the
on
tanks.
the
estimating
by
constituents
been
long
weight as
this
of
the
p.
336.
before.
work
soluble
EVAPORATING
AND
O^
DISCUSSION
JUICE
HEATING.
METHODS
METHODS.
CALCX7LATION.
OF
BY
H.
W.
Prop.
General
Conslderattons."
low
used
the
At
"
based
Dean
pressures
Regnault's
on
Department
op
New
University,
Tulanb
Technology, 215.
Creighton,
P.
Orleans,
-^tyipora^n
in sugar
house
should
377
page
assume
given
of
water
on
the
pressure
will be
pressure
the
by
below
217a.
Variation
Purity.
The
"
with
A
^^^
jj
217b.
A,
portion of
corresponding In liquid mass.
portion of
sugar
inaccuracies of
mass
a
as
sugar
due
to
the
the
portion considered.
surface
the
of the
entire
of
depth
the
mass
portion
of
with
Temperature
boiling-point of
the
in
is indicated is
as
Density
in Gerlach's in the
sugar
table, page
and tions solu454.
following table:
Brix
60
Fahrenheit
5.4
Centigrade
3.0
boiling point of
The
a
the
to
density,its viscosity and
surface. of the on
It is usual
liquid'ssurface.
variation
density
Degree / Degree \ Degree
Table
as
any
serious
to
a
its
that
general, the variation
In
leads
pressure
the
considered
which
at
entire
boiling of upon
absolute
increased
of the
depend
will
such
Solutions."
will boil is that
of
solution
or
tables
Sugar
temperature
assumption
temperature
This
of
surface
the
this
solutions the
the
on
pressure
tables
used.
that
mass
of Water.
calories,
Only
use.
Point
Boiling
216. to
for
be
.
formula
605.4 -fO.305 T
inaccurate
too
are
La.
the
work
H=1091.7+0.305(r-32)B.t.u., U^
op
solutions
sugar
is also
enced influ-
by their purity. 218.
Elftect have
increase
the
of
gums,
Viscosity. mucilages
viscosity of
the 350
In
"
and
the
raw
other
fluid.
juice
we
compounds As
anything
times some-
which which
EFFECT
the
Impedes
tends
surface to
easy
of the
escape
produce
to
that
see
the
from
bubble
steam
heating it is
local rise of temperature,
a
sirups will have
gummy
boiling than
of
351
VISCOSITY.
OP
puce
higher temperature
a
difference
The
solutions.
sugar
is uncertain.
the
At
with
Vaiiatioii
219.
low in
pressures
used
pressure
produce
tmder
than
far
which
at
For
of 2
will change the pressure inch.
head
a
pounds
at
141.8*
145.8"
F.
solution, without
difference
this
there
is
temperature
as
of water.
We
case
and
between is
values
boils at 125.5**
.03
solution whose mean
F.; imder
of vacuum, have
we
it boils
a
ture tempera-
heating
the heated
to
temperature, to
"*"
we
20.3*"
similar
a
lost
liquid that
see
in
F., difference
condition
in
the
degreesin temperature
Sugar
a
solution
sugar
equation of to those
30 .86
Solutions."
40 .79
may
be
its specificheat
70 .58
.65
of tlie
Liquid."
specificheat
is
To
raise TF
C, from
temperature, tt,requires
TrC("j-"i) B.t.u.
a
hence
readilyfound:
60
50 .72
relation
straight line and
a
below
and
The
80 51
.
Heat
square
to
of
of
20
....
Specific heat.
per
their effect.
the
Degree Brix of 10 solUitioii
a
pounds
shall call these
density of
the
intermediate
tu to
3.4
compared
Specific Heat
expressed by
2I^1"
to
loss of 145.8"125
a
later will discuss
21d0.
square
the
from
upon
in
(50.6*') inch, corresponding
'produce boilingin the sugar considering at all the effects of viscosity.
depends case
is 26 inches?
vacuum
per
water
required
transfer of heat
As
What
of 2 feet of solid (no
per square inch, or 23.8 inches Add for density 4* F. and F.
3.4
ferences dif-
portion of sirup of
pounds
vacuum
26 inches vacuum,
At
of
"^
inches
26
to
ferences dif-
sirup of specificgravity 1.236
of 2 feet of
head
small
example:
small
bubbles) sirup in the third effect if the A
work
larger temperature
a
50.6'' Brix will boil if it is under
Surface."
the
house
in sugar
high pressures.
be the temperature
wiU
Below
Depth
pounds of
mean
"
90 .44
a
.37
sugar
temperature,
362
EVAPORATING
Thus,
raise 10
to
HEATING.
pounds of sirup at 60" Brix from
leO**
temperature,
JUICE
AND
F.,
to
116 B.t.u. require 10X.58(180-160) and Sohitioifts 22^. Heat To Sugar
would
mean
180**
temperature,
mean
a
a
F.,
=
Water.
The
"
temperature
the
imder
water
of
Evaporate
risingfrom
as
that
When
the
same
pressure.
same
the surface
reaches
the
will be
solution
sugar
of the vapor
from
boiling
pure
superheated bubble
boiling sirup it loses all
a
boiling
a
excess
heat
temperature in vaporizing its watfery envelope. To raise Wi pounds of juice from a mean temperature, ii, temperature, fe,and evaporate Wt pounds of water a mean
and
to
temperatiure, tst corresponding to the .presaire at the surface, requires WiC(ti-ti)-^WiLiy where Lt is the latent at
a
heat In is
correspondingto
of water
h is greater than
where
cases
negative and
fe,the
quantity WiC(ti"ti)
be subtracted.
must
Condensate."
223.
h-
In
condensing
in evaporators
steam
that the condensate is work, it is usual to assume to anoth^ removed at the boiling point. If taken place of will give to self-evaporation and it will tend less pressure in sugar
pound
if W
another
to
is condensed
of steam
units in its
thermal
equal
vessel
where
is
steam
of normal
maceration used
water,
is
tanks
and
a
it is usual
removal
evaporated
into
the
give
Thus,
up
condensate
condensing W(ti-U) Heated.
at
WLi is led
a
lower
B.t.u. "
The
(mud
amount
amount
or
the
of water
oachaza).
In careful
experiments, weight of the purified juice to
from
that of the
dilution
as
juice,taking
raw
indicated
by
the
sities. den-
juice varies with the milling and the manufacture; methods also, with the equipment total weight of liquid to be heated of the factory. The The
or
dilution
concentrated
of
weight.
by evaporation in the various
of water
heated
consideration
if the
defecator-bottoms
calculate the or
its
increased
be
cake. with the filter-press to
loss in temperature
by the of lime, wash-waters, and
must
milk
diluting the
in
There
be
juice
cane
up
to be
Liquid
of
Amount
the
at "i, it will
vessel, and
own
temperature; fe,it will there give 224.
to
multiplied by
condensate
the
in
units
of thermal
number
a
up
usually
the
ranges
from
about
90
to
110
per
HEAT
353
LOSSES.
The mean weight of the cane. evaporation in the multiple effect in tropicalfactories approximates 78 per cent by weight. is not only lost from Heat Losses. Heat 225. the heating vessel itself by radiation but is lost from the pipes conveying heated liquid. Steam condenses in steam-pipes idle. The loss of heat is not negligible when when the even conducted. heating or evaporatingis carelessly Transfer Coefficient of Heat 226. (K)."The unit of heat transfer,called the SpecificThermal Conductivity,is of ihe
cent
"
of
number
the
the steam for each
thermal
units
transferred
hour
per
from
Uirough the heating surface to the sugar solution tween degree difference of temperature, Fahrenheit,bethe
and
the steam
solution for each
foot of
square
heating surface. for heat
formulas
The
involve this unit which
transfer have
may
are
simple, but they all value
any
between
1500
B.t.u. per hour. Experience and judgment requiredto select a proper value. Some of the variables and
B.t.u. are
50
effectingthe value of this imit are: (1) The velocityof the steam past the heatingsurface; of the sugar solution past the heating surface ; (2) The velocity (3) The presence of air or other incondensible gases; (4) T^e character and thickness of the depositson either both sides of the heatingsurfaces; or position (5) The surface pressure and the depth, densityand comof the sugar solution being boiled. transfer of heat is the transfer of vibration
The
deadening which rate
should On
no
and lowered
be swept aside to allow the the
sugar
solution
must
be
moved is
heating surface,as steam is
results in less.
have strudc the Rurf ace
bubbles
steam
the vibration
longer any
doubt
as
or
a
poor
to
the
cules mole-
their vibration cules. mole-
new
heating surface,
swept heat
thing any-
Steam
impact of
side of the
and
away
from
conductor.
existence
and
the
There
enormous
importance of surface films of gases, where the heating fluid is a gas, or of a vapor having air-containing films,as in to
effects,which
ance magnify incalculablythe resistthe transfer of heat through the metal plate. Smith
condensers
or
hJ
354
EVAPORATING
found of
that at 90"
1/20
cent, and
of air
reduced
heat
3/20 in.
the reduced
mercury
transmission
in the tube
water
to the
Ps
represents the
of
the
partial
HEATING.
JUICE
F. the presence
in. mercury
that heat
says
AND
partial steam and
steam
with
the
and
power
25
per
Orrok
cent.
(p^) where ,
and See
pressures.
the
Pt
sum
'^Vacuum
In the steam belt shown in Fig. 93, any Pumps," 246. in the heating steam is positivelyforced to the outlet incondensible
High
air
for
gases.
velocity then
ciurent
heating surface.
the
*
Telocity of the
with
pressure
air
pressure
a
transniission
it 50 per
varies
6/10
producing
cross-section
of
the
as
high
secure
steam
decrease
path should
To
is desirable
current
rapidly as
at
both
on
of
sides
velodty the right angles to its steam
the volume
of the
steam
is decreased
by condensation. is increased culation by securing a positive fluid cirEconomy in a predetermined path. In the ordinary standard is
juice. The
juice circulation
transfer
definite
path of either the
effect there
no
of heat
is
spout into the
high, with
is erratic.
In
tendency
a
but
to
steam
or
the
spots the
some
the
cause
juice
the
largest part of the heating surface is not used efficiently.In the steam heating there are in which the incondensible large volumes space to
gases
accumulate
Eddy
currents
steam
and
space,
lower
the
efficiencyby bkmketing is eddying with cyclonic the heating surfaces. As the steam are constantly changing position. velocity, these volumes indicate inefficiency.
When
exhaust
steam
liable to
contain
much
of this oil and
of
is used
for
heating
oil from
the
engines. The
scale,arising from
the
purposes,
lime
used
it is
presence
in the
defecation,impede the transfer of heat. As the metal
used
to
is generallyeither copper
separate the heated
and heating fluids
quite thin,the coefficient of heat transfer is not affected appreciably by its thickness. of the Juice and 227, Evaporation Crystallization of the Sugar. Sugar juicesare evaporated to the saturation distinct stages. The or crystallization first point in two or
brass and
"
1
"Proportioning
tions of the American
of
Surface
Condensers,"
Society of Mechanical
G. A. Orrok, TransaoEngineers, 1917.
356
AND
EVAPORATING
of
cyde
juice of about
feet of
unit
of 10
to
serieB of vesaels called
a
cubic
a
Bnx
12.5"
If
therein feet.
is
will be
multiple effect,it cubic
involves
daily.
times
several
repeated
operations
the second
while
Operation is practically continuous a.
HEATING.
JUICE
sent
orated evap-
about
lo
is about
stage
In the
feet of
cubic
into
drawn and
a
vacuiun
which
will
be
sugar
and
half
from
pan
about
to
of tnasseeuite
foot
Besides
about
half
molasses.
evaporating the
sirup
water
point,
in the pan
Fia.Ol.
the
enlargement
of
the
governs
design is
dependent
thick viscous
a
Multiple
228.
usually consists
usually even
four
six
increases are
whN"
the heat other
the
with
concerned. the
of
necessary
side.
used.
of steam
evaporate
Necessarily
pan
charging dis-
the
are
so
far
simple side
water
from
t"mperature
three
as
efficiency fuel coste
steam
of
a
tube
the juice and
or
five and
Europe
operated,
one
on
multiple effect
in Cuba
in
vessels in
vessels
These
to
while
Properly of
the
vessels;
ordinarily;
number
condensing
Louisiana
In
three
or
vacuum
quickly.
mass
two
been
have
This
efficiently handling and
upon
Effects."
used
are
size.
the multiple effect,while
of
design
more
the crystak
boiling to grain. Efficiencyof evaporation
is called
operation
sugar
subsequent
commercial
to
the
include
graining or forming the crystals and
it
bring
to
the saturation
I operations
two
sirup will be
evaporated
1 cubic
ond sec-
of
unit
our
in the
to
preparatory
operation.
next
to
tiple the mul-
is stored
eEfect and
tanks,
its
Brin.
53"
from
It b pumped
2
thickened
This
juice is called simp and density
a
heaters affords on
pressure
the of
the
steam
juice
the heating side
on
heated
or
side.
The
357
CONDENSATE.
OF
DISPOSAL
higher than
are
those the
arising from
vapor
the
on
boiling
juice in the first efifector vessel passes through a pipe to the steam space of the second effect,Fig. 91, and will evaporate juice if the
the
from
water
maintained
pressure
this
on
the two fall of temperature between proper The vapor sides of the heating surface. arisingin each effect
juice allows
a
last which
the
is sent
to
that
followingone, except
in the
evaporativeduty
does
from
condenser.
a
belt (A) could be of the form shown Fig. 90 the steam surrounds In this tyx)e the steam in Fig. 92. in section The the small tubes. juice boils up through the tubes and In
either
descends
in
down-take
tubes
through adjacent the
and several largertubes used
omitted
the
Note
in
followingconditions
through the large
large down- take
The
center.
or
down-takes
as
inay as
be
desired.
Fig. 90:
IV
Effect. differences
Temperature
40"
PresBurea:, -16.2 -24.7
side Steam side Juioe Differences Densities, Briz:
8.6
effects effect)!
Entering In
data
These
""
470
obtained
were
capacity
older
especiallyin the contain
sugar
moving
steam
carried
sugar
the
foaming.
Figs. 90 American
to
93
In
are
necessarily.
and
from
indicate
may
the other
in the be used
effects,
is liable
evaporators,
in the
to
rapidly
is rarely preceding effect. There well-proportionedand well-operated
If the
used
were
not
condensate
by entrainment
over
the
from
multiple effects.
1
The
of
do
economy
condensate
types
in modem
entrainment
start
maximum
or
The
boiler feed water.
of
and
^
belt of the first effect is free of sugar
steam as
test
on
Condensate."
of
Disposal
229.
in.
12**
maximum
either
in. in.
condensates
containing
even
traces
boilers,these would ultimately modem the confactory, in which
in the the
from
a
paper
Society of Mechanical
by
E.
W.
Engineers.
Kerr 1916.
in
Transactions
of
358
EVAPOEATINQ
contain
8
boilere, in (mud
AND
no
cachaza)
or
the
and
HEATINQ.
this water
sugar,
saturating
JUICE
ia used
in
feeding the
bagasse, in diluting tank-bottomB
in wfkshing the
various
Gondensat" effect
tanks.
from be
may
the
third
the
fourth
the second
passed
and
the total into
by
condensate
from
each
to
or
belt of the
termed.
of
Incondeosible
"
bteught into the
are
multiple effect [in the and
juice
or
under
to
fast
they
as
of the and
pose juice decom-
should
be
the gases
with
calandria In
positive are
forced
steam
The
not
the
air
cools
the
air has a
air to escape.
traps
and
will
stem
and
sink
steam, so
for
will
is t"ken below
but
the
valve
to
that
the
neither escape
fact
steam.
in attemptii^
oloaes
air
of the the
pose. pur-
with
let the
exit
pressure
in connection pass,
that
eaolt
the
using high
let water
Advantage
escaped, the
valve
valves
air relief valve
steam.
readily
pans
the
connect
air pump
or
vacuum
by
steam
The
steam.
nor
heats
of the
case
traps.
but
condenser,
the
so
to move
to
by the pipes which
the air ia removed
steam,
air
the
removed
The
heating.
continuously are
ammonia
of the beating steam
path
they
as
nitrogenous
form
the
during
pressures less un-
Certain
bodies
off
accumulate,
removed enter.
steam
given
are
the reduced
and t"nd
where
the
Disposal
Gases.
a
pump
calandria, as
is often
330.
gaaea
of
separately
heating section effect
then
means
It is usual
the
into
effect and
be removed pump.
The
that After
follow, allowed
359
TCBEB.
Jnlce
231.
the juice height, as
when
the
tube
lite
sirup
sheet,
kept
is
controlled
valves
may
height
gaged by the
tube
height.
the juice over
cany
indicate
not
same
the
exterior
the
juice level,
in all effects
by hand-
pumped
amount
from
of thin juice drawn
amount
the first.
into
Different
232. are
bubbles
auhMuatically, the
or
last liffectbeing
the
the
at
by the glass gage
oae-fourth
this does
but
vertical
is secured
capacity
greateet
to
the effect the s'^eam
the
ordinary standard
indicated
effect, is one-third
Inside
the
effect. Fig. 92, the
multiple
to
In
Height."
diSet^ot
many
few
The
most
of difierrat
couunon
large
fault
is
juice
capacity,
too
so
mains juice re-
the
long in
too
effect.
Home
lack
types
styles of multiide efiects made
There
elements.
same
the
Effects."
Multiple
of the
modifications
that
of
Types
in
the
poaitiveness of the of
circulation steam
juice
or
the in
or
withdrawal
the
cS
incondenuble
the gaaes.
The
beating is made
face sur-
of
up
straight tubes
usu-
^^
^
ally either vertical
Usually the
horizontal.
or
the
juice through
type
the
juice is sprayed
of the
tube
are
and more
contains
Tabes.
333.
about 40
to
permit air
To
steam.
"
ft inch 54
a
the
tubes
the closed
upper
vertical standard
thick, 1} inches
inches
intensely
to escape
In
inclined
over
horione
taining con-
end
pin hole.
a
In
the
passes through the vertical ones.
and
Eontal tubes well-known
steam
long.
small
The
number
or
effect the
2 inches
longer these of them
tubes
in diameter
tubes
is heated
and the
the more
360
AND
EVAPORATING
JUICE
HEATING.
they spout juicehigh up in the rapidly moving efficient the heating surface, the The more more
wiU
certain steam.
the
will be
uniform
will be the
the smaller
juice and
entire
top sheet
and
temperature difference between
sides.
steam
the
boilingover Intense
localized
heating
the
should
be
avoided. tuTjes in horizontal
The
about
and
diameter
12
unit
a
as
Longer tubes
of
are
These
eight, which
in
tubes
be
may
moved re-
(Fig.91). of Eff eets
Relations
234.
long.
inch
1
or
in the middle.
in nests
generallyarranged
are
f inch
are
feet
14
or
supported
unless
liable to sway
effects
effects will operate when
to
they
Each
Other."
Multiple operating efficiently.
not
are
arisingin one effect must be condensed in the belt foUowing, and conditions will change so that next steam this will occur. Suppose that the third effect suddenly All the steam
its heating surface
had
the
transmit
covered
of heat
amoimt
with
and temperature pressure transmitted heat the was rise till steam
in
belt
the
in
increased the |)ressure
its steam
Ihe
formerly,as calandria
or
the
on
of
belt
not
would
effect.
rise in
the
the
condense
to
second
the
could
before, so
sufficient
from
over
less than
this would\be pressure
coming
now
It
it transmitted
steam
the
scale.
the
third
But steam
effect
juiceside of the second
all
has
effect.
capacity of each effect depends upon the capacity of the effect preceding it and on the one following. Beal and Apparent 235. Temperature Oifferences. The
The
"
difference
going
vapor
apparent as
double
the a
first effect
of
four
and from
temperature.
the
parts.
paragraph, These
the
are
the
there
tabulated below
standard
for
temperature
in
in
steam of
into a
vessel.
one
two
the
In
parts, in
quadruple
enumerated
causes
are
the
the last effect is the total For a single effect,such
pan, this total range occurs effect this range is divided
For
in
temperature
triple effect into three parts and
into
of
the
to the condenser
range
vacuimi
a
the
of
calandria
between
in
effect a
ceding pre-
of temperature. lost-degrees a
tnple and
type, for usual
quadruple effect
conditions
under
three
heads.
(1) The
boiling temperature
loss is due
to
the
fact that
TEMPERATUBE
we
dealing with
are
tiUed
static head
(2) The
and
third
Obtain
assumed
loss
to
the
the
enter
and
the
125.4"
can
scale
expected
of
ranges
apparent
or
the
166.8** Fiom
The
the
199.8** F.
second
be
is the
is
range
-29.8**
triple
a
conditions affecting, as
heating surfaces.
vessel
the vapor
apparent
considered
26** have
is
steam
divided, for
with
belt.
apparent steam so
range
been
for instance In
the
table
assumed. of the
sum
obtained
Tha
assumed
is the
in the steam
A
TRIPLE
first steam
temperature 199.8**
in the second can
gives
vessel.
readDy find the
the temperatures.
IN
27.4**
temperature,
Subtracting SS"* F. from
correspondingto DISTRIBUTION
in
temperature
F., the temperature of the vapor tables (page 377) we the steam
pressures
of the
its
the assiuned
F., from
the
sity den-
expected lost degrees of temperature. the temperature of the vapor rising in the first
vessel, subtract
in
in. each
in it and
obtain
on
22**,24** and
range
real range
belt.
oil
been
The
is 227.2** -125.4"
now
coefficients that have
heat
F.
F. and
The
F.
real range
real range
the
to
in the Vessels
first vessel at 227.2^
effect,into three parts in accordance
To
depth
(218).
5.4*'-|-9' +15.4** =29.8''
are
This
72** F.
the
dis-
below, the total loss degrees
table
the last vessel at
leave
the
with
to the
(assumed) due
to he Carried
the Pressures
227.2** -125.4'' =
in the loss due
viscosityof the solution
temperature
to
loss takes
includes
Multiple Effectr^ln of
than
boilingliquid(216), (219).
(3) The To
solution rather
sugar
a
(217) ;
water
of the
361
DIFFERENCES.
EFFECT.
362
EVAPORATING
AND
DISTRIBUTION
In
"Steam
IN
A
in
Economy
HEATING
JUICE
EFFECT.
QUADRUPLE
the
Sugar Factory/' Abraham, translated by Bayle, the following table is given, illustrating losses in temperature LOSS
IN
in evaporators of beet sugar DIFFERENCE
TEMPERATURE,
factories:
IN
DEGREES
FAHRENHEIT.
System.
Evaporation
Single effect.
.
Double
.
.
effect Triple effect effect. Quadruple Quintuple effect. .
.
.
....
gives
Hausbrand^
temperature
in the
equal
The
him
area.
are
as
greater differences
even
effects when
the
ratios of the
in the
fall of
heating surfaces
fall of temperature
are
of
given by
follows:
In the double
effect
1
1 58 .
1 tripleeffect In the quadruple effect. .1 In the
Applying
ratios
these
apparent temperature
in
1 .44
3.44
105
1
1 48
.
the
differences O
preceding as
2
.
175 .
would
cases
follows:
1JI
o
1?
op*
op.
"
In
the
In the The
tripleeffect quadruple
1
of
"Evaporating,
brand, Eng.
.
17.3
24.9
59
17.7
19.5
26
.
temperatures Condensing
Ed., 113.
2
38.4
.
of the difference between
discussion
differences
effect.
has and
give
been Cooling
real and
introduced Apparatus,"
apparent
largelyto E.
Ha\is-
364
did
EVAPORATING
build
not
bring the
to
m^ and
pressure
evaporation enormously increased.
HEATING.
if
liad been enough steam supplied to 18 pounds per square lute, inch, abso-
up
the
rate
In
foot
square
per
this test the
would
been
of temperature
being 7.6" F.
by Prof. Kerr should be consulted
originalpapers
drawing conclusions
have
total range
53.8" F., that in the first effect
was
The
JUICE
AND
before
to the relative
of the tors efficiency evaporaincluded in his tests. The results of his tests are given in the tables at the end of this chapter, to serve as examples. ^In properlyoperated clean effects Heat Balance. 237. it is close enough to say that 1 pound weight of steam per as
"
unit of time
will evaporate
approximately 3 pounds of water from 4 pounds of juice in a tripleeffect and that it will evaporate 4 pounds of water from 5 pounds of juice in a quadruple effect in the us
the
assume
steam
of
unit
same
temperatures
on
To page
show 361
this, let
for
a
triple
density of the entering juice is 12 Brix, the temperature being 180" F.
effect and
Heat
also that
time.
the
Distribution
in
Effect.
Triple
a
Heat.
First Effect. 1 lb.
steam,
per
Heat
5 lbs. pressure
0
Latent
=960.7
Juice,lb. B.t.u.
000
4 .
sq. in.
requiredto raise
4 lb.
juiceat 180" F. to 199.8" F.,specific heat =0.9, 72 (199.8-180) X4X0.91 =
=
.
Total
.
.
heat liberated heat
Latent
888.7
at 199.8" =977.7
B.t.u.
Evaporation No.
1 =888.7-^977.7=
Juice transferred
to No.
Second liberated
Vapor from
as
No.
1 effect
=
Effect.
888.7
27.4
juice:
(199.8-166.8)3.091X0.85= Total
^"x=i5-5".
condensate:
(227.2-199.8) Xl heat from
*"
3.091
follows:
Sensible heat from
Sensible
.909
2 effect
BS^tooHeat
.
heat liberated
86.7 1002.8
INCBEASING
EVAPORATIVE
transferred to No. 2 effect
Juice
heat
Intent
at 166.8
No.
Evaporation
2
1002.8 ^998
15,5_2J086
.
Vapor
heat
Sensible
^ _^^o "r"-^3.
. ""
Third No.
2.086 "
Brix'"3.09r from
1.005
=
3 effect
transferred to No.
Juice
3.091
,
998
=
=
Effect.
2 effect
from
1002.8
condensate:
(199.8-166.8)(0.909+1.005)
63.2
=
from
the
juice: (166.8 -125.4) (2.086)(0.75) heat
Sensible
366
EFFICIENCY.
64.7
=
'
heat
Total
liberated
.
heat at 125" F.
Latent
.
.
.
1130.7
1021
=
1130.7
Evaporation
'^
in No.
3
.
No.
3, gg^
Increasing
238.
it is
0.979
0 979
23
Sirup from
1 107
=
=
=
g^*
Evaporative
always advisable
on
^"
"*"
the
=
^^'
ally Efficiency." Theoreticscore
of steam
to heat
economy
to
low-temperature low-pressuresteam to heat those of high temperature. high-temperature steam at different temperatures, By using a series of heaters taking steam use
solutions in
a
series of
can
be
solutions and
raised
in the
steam
the last effect is wasted, yet
be
used
its
owi
the vapor
high temperatures
operations.
Thus, all the heat from
to
a
going to the condenser portion of that heat could
ten degrees of juices to within some In other heaters, steam taken from temperature. pipes of the third,second, or first effect could raise to
raise cold
juiceto highertemperatures. The practicalobjectionsto the scheme are the increased complexity of the apparatus, its initial cost and upkeep.
the
the
followingassumptions: of heat units in 1 pound weight of steam (1) The number at all pressures (practically). is the same (2) If X pounds of water are evaporated from a multiple of pounds of exhaust steam effect,then the number required number if of vessels the is the in be effect. will x/Uy n taken from the boilers and If h pounds of steam are (3) Let
us
make
366
used or
EVAPORATING
in any
JCHCING.
HEAT
AND
singleeffect heater, such
the defectator,
used will be
steam
"
the
as
vacuum
pan
h^.
n
Suppose that the
being sent from the last effect to the condenser were of high enough grade,it is evident that we could save 100 per cent of h pounds of steam by diverting h pounds of this steam from the condenser. Every pound of steam sent to the double effect should evaporate 2 pounds of water, but if 1 pound of vapor is from the vapor removed pipe leadingto the second effect, then the evaporation has been reduced 50 per cent, as only has been evaporated. By removing h 1 pound of water pounds from the vapor pip)eof the firsteffect we must send steam
h
X
to the first effect
^ +"
Every pound of
h
pounds of steam, thus saving ^ pounds.
steam
sent
3 pounds of water. GAIN
IN
PER
to
taking off
By
CENT
tripleeffect should
a
pound EFFECTS.
ROBBING
BY
a
orate evap-
of vapor
-
lose the
evaporation of 2 pounds of water in the followingeffects and so the gain is 33 J per If the vapor taken from the vapor cent. were pipe of the the
from
second
first effect
effect
gain 663
we
evaporate
we
2
out
of 3
pounds
of water
or
per cent.
General
to abstract h Equations." If we are pounds of steam from only the first of n vessels and must nish evaporate x pounds of water in those vessels, we must fur239.
the firstvessel with
(
(a) This
expressionmay We
may
-j +hi pounds of
steam.
be considered to consist of two
imagine
a
weight
of steam
( \n
normally in
n
vessels and
so
evaporate
-] to n
n( \n
tors. facact
/
^j =x"h n
/
IN
SAVING
pounds
^i
essary
The
of water.
factor,hi, evaporated the
other
neo-
the firsteffect and this vapor
from
of water
pounds
367
CENT.
PER
perform the auxiliaryheating. t^ken from only the second If ^2 pounds of steam are
is sent
to
vessels,the
n
of steam
amount
that must
be sent
of
to the first
vessel will be
("-^)+A,.
(6)
before,we
As
I
"
"
to
imagine
may
act
the steam
normally and
supply
representedby its value
times
n
additional evaporation, or (x"2ht) pounds. The will evaporate /is pounds from each pounds of steam in
h^ of
effects,giving z for the total evaporation and hg for auxiliaryheating. be drawn In general let hi,hi,At, hn pounds of steam nth effect,then the total the first, from second, third, will be, on consumption of steam rearranging expressions (a) and (6)above two
.
.
.
.
rnx-T'H'rni-r*
"
.
.
.-[-An
.
.
n
n
Savliig in
Cent."
Per
"
The
saving A, may also be expressed as a percentage of x, so that the consumption of and the saving may be expressed in terms of x. steam the conThus, if hi-T-x^px, hi-i-x^pz hn-^x^pm sumption of steam expressed as a percentage of that required 240.
.
for direct
"
and
the
a
.
multipleeffect evaporationwould +Pi-f-pa
.
.
.
be
Pn
,
percentage saving would be (pi4-2p2+3p8
In
.
quadruple effect
the second
the
effect of O.lOx and
.
.
npn)-^n.
.
first effect is robbed the third of
(.15X.254-.10X.50+.05X.75)x
=
of 0.15x,
0.05z,the saving is
12.6%. j?|a; or
(238.)
(.16+2X.10+3X.05)-*-4"12.6%.
or
In
and
a
quadrupleeffect if,in
third effects
are
robbed
one
of
second instance,the first,
equal
amounts
of steam,
368
EVAPORATING
AND
JUICE
HEATING.
and, in another instance,the second effect is alone robbed of the same is the same quantity of steam, the efficiency in both cases theoretically: .25+.50+.75_ "
~'^'^
3 the reduction
however, Practically,
in
complexity of piping
robbing of the second effect preferable. the When 241. or Pauly Heaters Pre-evaporators." ficient supply of exhaust steam from the various engines is not sufthere is a choice between admitting live steam direct makes
the
the boilers into the steam
from
using this live
belt of the first effect
heater
and
taken
not
of
or
sending the resulting belt. If P pounds of steam into the steam sent to are vapor to the first the preheater,it will deliver P pounds of steam effect, and
in
steam
be
must
care
a
multiple effect
twice.
The
pounds
of steam, and
x-P.. ,
,
must
proper
this steam
count
evaporate x"P
now
requireeither
this will
(^1+2^2+3^3+.
,
,
to
.
nhn)
.
n
n
pounds of steam, n
according as the effects are robbed or not. If the effects are robbed, then the firsteffect (n+l)P.,
X
,.
(/ii-f2/i2+3/i3+...n/in)1
,
,
-|-/ii+/i2-r "
.
.
+P,
hn n
n
n
receive
must
simplicityS^-f P pounds of exhaust steam, llE being the quantity enclosed by the brackets. which
shall call for
we
If the
effects
-PJ pounds
(
robbed, the first effect will receive
not
are
of exhaust
and
steam,
P
from
pounds
(x"P\
the
preheater or
total of (
various
I
of boiler and
total amount
The the
a
use
Ha^ Hi,, He
effects
are
robbed
.
"
of hu
"
exhaust and
auxiliary machines
former
pounds.
the
Hg pounds
hz, hz
.
.
.
hn
steam
supply
to
the
effects when of
and
steam
pounds
the
of steam
will be
+ f/a + H6+
2^+P ^ I "
n
Z7
1
17
|-/2a~r"6"r
.
.
u'
. "
"
"
.
Ho-{lh+h,-\^
hn)^ (Ai4-2/t2+3/i3 4...
.
.
.
nhn)
'
"^
"
n
n
HEATIiNG
Steam
242.
Consumption
manufacture
In the
of
369
SURFACES.
cane
In
Cane
a
Honse.
factories do
most
sugar
Sug^ar
not
use
do
they rob the effects,though the large use and the high cost of fuel is leading to of maceration water the rapid introduction of preheaters and preevaporators. preheaters nor
The
is also used
preevaporator
increase
to
the
eva|X)rative
capacity of the factory. In beet sugar factories preevajx)rator8 generally used and the effects are robbed of vapor. are In the following example the weight of steam used for is expressed as a percentage of the weight of purpose any the cane ference that there is no difground. It is further assumed in the and
steam a
in that
from
water
that
vacuum
a
of
pound of high-pressure
a
pound of low-pressuresteam; that in condensing will evaporate a pound of steam the juice; that a preheater may be used and using low-pressuresteam for heating is pan
of
pound
quantity of heat in a
feasible. In
house
a
is 78
provided with of the
cent
per
quadruple effect,the
a
weight
cane
supplied the firsteffect is therefore
steam vacuum
use
pans
22 per cent
and
78/4
the
oration evap-
exliaust The
cent.
per
for
heating 16 per cent steam used is then, for, preheater,no robbing of effects,
weight of steam (1) Straightevaporation,no
is used.
and
The
7Q
-^+16+2257.5%. =
(2) If
preheater receiving10
a
per
cent
is
steam
used,
55%. "^^^^^+16+22 =
(3) If the
preheaterreceiving 10
a
cent
per
first effect is robbed vacuum
pan,
of 10 per cent steam the second effect is robbed
juiceheating and for heating purposes, for
the fourth
4
same
are
to
for
a
and
sure low-pres-
of 10 per of 6 per effect is robbed
cent cent
4
If the effects are the
is used
steam
robbed
not
heating surface. be robbed
to the next
as
diminishes
the
it is usual to
This mass
cannot
of steam
greatly. Thus,
give each vessel
be done sent
if the effects
from
one
effect
370
EVAPORATINQ
The
exhaust
78
AND
steam
JUICE
HEATING.
to the firsteffect
sent
S^"
=
5X10_^^^^^^_^^_ )^,, ^^^ (10X1+10X2+6X4^
4
4
IB,..
19.5
10% Steam from
I"
-29.6%"
10.0-
re-
Eeater
10%
T,
n-i".5%"
19.5%"
in"
IV-L3.6%
fl.5%"
I
i
i
29.5%
10%
19.5%
9.5%
9.5%
Evaporation 78%
factory is prosperous, it is usual to increase its in the sizes of effects, capacity. If changes are to be made it is well to consider robbing," lettingthe old effects follow first effect,enlarged to provide the necessary extra a new Where
a
'*
heating surface. 343, Heating 378,
is struck
one
By referringto Table
by the wide
disparityin temperature
different
in the
allowed
Surfaces."
effects in different
B,
page
fall
houses,and
also
conductivity by the disparityin the coefficients of thermal in the different effects in houses of the same capacity. that
It is evident are
with
the
that water we
can
the
water
in each
conditions
effect will evaporate
we
6.5 to
the
effects
operated vessel, will be are
do not
conditions, for example,
average
per
when
incrustation,and
these economic
quadruple
a
obtained
fall of temperature
proper
different when Under
results
free of oil and
and
new
the
obtain. may
7.5
assume
pounds
square foot of heating surface per hour and hence the heating surface obtain by dividing necessary
evaporated
be
to
in each
effect per
hour
by 6.5
to 7 5. -
\
Thus,
of water
if
a
quadrupleeffect is to evaporate
per
hour, the
heating surface
100,000 -5- (6.5X4) =4000 If the effects surface cane
of
of any
ground
sq.
100,000 pounds
of each
effect will be
ft.,approximately.
robbed
of vapor, the area of the heating effect is found by multiplying the weight of are
per
hour
by the product of the percentage
of
evaporation in that effect and the latent heat of the steam and fall of temdividing by the product of the apparent perature in that
effect and
its assumed
coefiScient of
heat
372
EVAPORATING
AND
fall of temperature
in them
JUICE
and
HEATING,
in the
those
creased de-
first two
by increasingcorrespondinglythe fall of temperature in them. Find
Example:
juice heater for capacity; at
equal
taken
of the
that
of
183.5^
F.y assumed
lOO"*
Aspume'the
the
F., the
of the
weight of the
to lose 1000
effect
juice is
entering the heater
of heat
difference
a
daily grinding weight of the
pipes of the second
vapor
transfer
between
B.t.u. per
specificheat of the juice is 0.9. the
of cane,
cent
per
coefficient
steam
tons
heating "vurface of
its temperature
degree Fahrenheit
per
6
the
and
cane
to
from
temperature
a
of
area
factory of 1000
a
steam
be
to
cane
the
The
is 250
the
B.t.u. sides.
two
pound and
is
the
that
rise in temperature
in
juice B.t.u.
1000X2000X0.06X1000
^o
^^ wo
p *"
1000X2000X0.9 The
of
difference
mean
between
temperature
juice and
sides of the heater
steam
too
loo.o
=
Allowing
10
-
I
"
rt
)
=50.2"
for radiation
cent
per
heating surface
/100+100+66.6
c
other
and
,,1000X2000X0.9X6G.6_^^o
-
.,
^"^
^'
250X24X50.2
originaljuice temperature be
must
ten
or
losses,the
will be
1.1 X
The
F.
plus its rise in temperature
degrees below
more
"*
the
assumed
steam
tem-
perature. Pan.
Vacuum
244.
A
"
vacuum
pan
is
a
single effect,
evaporating from 12 to 15 per cent of the quantity of water, requiredto be evaporated by the multiple effect. Economy of time To
rather
boil
and
than
drop
of steam
economy
strike
a
is
sought in its design.
quickly is desired.
To
boil
required properly clarified sirup, good quickly there are and air and coils free of condensate sirup circulation,steam the heating steam as great difference in temperature between and
the
massecuite
quickly the heating the massecuite.
as
is
surfaces
practicable. To must
not
impede
drop the
a
strike
free fall of
373
CONDENSER.
Boiler
passing a reducing valve, is
steam,
vertical manifold the
Inside
pan.
4-inch
helical
In
feet.
of
the
nozzles
divide
be
entering
into
manifolds
two
a
2
4
or
longer than
not
having similar
on
site oppo-
and
nozzles
40
tubes.
so
contain
must
the
In
and
thin
it is covered
unless
steam
first part
is rather
pan
or
preferably may
nozzles
to
culation arranged as to give the best cirthe quickest drop possible.
massecuite. in
there
be
must
and tube
these
tubes
pans
8 branches
or
pan
diameter
a
tubes
No
the
copper
large
sides These
having
6
admitted
of
the
with
operation the
diminishes
mass
till it
in volume
grain. After that period dui*ingthe building increases in density and of grain the mass amount to up when the pan is full. Owing to lost degrees maximum a of massecuite,highin temperature in boiling deep masses inch, is usually used. steam, 45 pounds per square pressiu^ is
to form
ready
Sugar is often boiled ivith exhaust tube at high velocity,as enters a of
the
when
process,
the
unbalanced
When
steam.
it does
in the
sirup is thin, and results that
pressure
this steam first part
condenses, sets
siderable con-
excessive
up
vibration, unless the tube is restrained by collars fastened soft coils must to rigiduprights. The not rub against their produce pin holes in the tube. 0.55 boiler horsepower designing the pan, about
collars and In
pounds
450
of steam
be
must
allowed
per
of
ton
or
cane
per
from
the
day. Condenser.
245.
last effect the
of and
vacuum
or
the
As
incondensible
that
so
the
condenser
placed
condenser
pump
vacuum
is
a
is
may
either
on
by
in the
air
inal orig-
heating process provided to remove
maintained.
preferredtype height above a
that
the
be
be
below
accompanied
dissolved
during must
steam
is reduced
steam
gases, formed
juices or sirup,or through leakage, an air them
the pressure
pan
atmosphere.
other
condensing the
By
"
The
or
metric baro-
plantations. It is
a
the
when
ground so that it discharge by gravity against the atmospheric pressure the bottom of its discharge pipe is submerged in an
open
tank
may
In enters
the
at
filled with modern
the
water.
type
condenser
the vapor at
pipe from
the side
near
the
the effect bottom
or
and
pan a?
374
EVAPORATING
the suction
AND
pipe of the air
JUICE
HEATING.
is attached
pump
at
the
top,
the
path of the gases is toward the top. The injectionwater the top of the condenser enters and is broken into near up their way
on
water a
thin
or
sprays
sheets the
which
through
the vapors
condenser.
counter-current
discharge pipe usually supports
should
pass
air pump
and opening. As the vapor in opposite directions,it ia sometimes called to
move
The
must
be about
feet
34
high.
To
the
condenser.
find the minimum
It
height
the absolute feet,divide the difference between pressure and the minimum absolute of the atmosphere to pressure in pounds per be carried in the condenser inch, by square in
the
and
weight of
a
in feet necessary
of water
of efflux of the Fins
Example. from a
cubic
pounds per discharge pipe of
a
carrying
condenser
the
feet of
60
weighing
high height velocity
this add the
the
assumed
atmosphere
at
inchithe minimum
on
the
bottom from
water
cone
whirling
discharge foot, are
water to
per
be
second,
discharged
foot cross-section from 0.5 square of 2 pounds, absolute,into pressure
a
of
pressure
a
placed
level.
the normal
If 5 cubic
"
be
prevent the
to
proper
risingabove
so
1 foot
discharge water.
of the condenser
and
To
produce
to
projectionsshould
or
discharge water
in cross-section.
inch
1 square
of the
column
14.7
height will be found (14.7-2)
pounds as
-^^=30.5
per
square
follows:
ft.;
ion
V^=2gh;
/.
^1
=
^^^ 1.56
=30.5 height
Minimum
=
ft.;
=32.06
+1.56
ft.
Cast iron is porous and Pump. air be tight with will leak through it,although it may regard should be raised and the sirup. A vacuum or to steam 346.
Vacuum
"
entire surfaces of effects and and
then
The
length
should
be
heated
gently
pores.
paraffincor other paint which will Joints of all descriptions may leak air.
of time
a
painted with
close these
pans
a
vessel
will hold
a
vacuum
indicates its
VACUUM
air
tightness. Air leakage of air that must
amomit
The
office of the
oondensible off
oome
as
but if the
this
than
be
can
to
or
air and
pump
The
pumping
reduced
to
by more incoming injectionwater To do this bring the vapor, Fahrenheit. opening of the air
suction
small
than
avoidable, un-
amount
10^
that 15*
or
just as it is
ing enter-
into contact
with
pump^
of the
having the temperature
surfaces
vapor
exceeding
not
in-
is
vapor
very
of the
the
the
other
air and
some
a
temperature
a
times
more
unavoidably.
vapor.
that
so
air is cooled
two
is to
air pump
mixture
a
be
may
be handled
rather
gases
375
PUMP.
incoming injection
water.
The
in the
pressure the but
parts
and
vapor
from
in all
same
different parts of
differ considerably. If
of the
the
the
take
we
tables
the
find
the perature tem-
sponding corre-
shall find this pressure less than that The difference of these existingin the condenser. we
pressure
actuaUy
nearly the
the
of
temperatures
may
mass
vapor
is
condenser
due is the pressure to the incondensible gases. pressures the less the amount of steam in lower we cool the vapor The
given
any
the
and
mass
greater the
of air
amount
the
as
The constant. total pressure remains proportion of vapor of air present is in proportion to the pressures and they This
exert. Thus as
suppose shown by the shows
that
the
table
From
law
is Dalton's
gauge
the we
in pressure and that mm.,
102
was
of the
temix?rature see
gases.
absolute
the
that
of mixed
that
the
is 92.3
temperature
mm.,
pressure
that
condenser
a
eter thermom50"
was
vapors
C.
correspondingto
P
this
a
92 3
'^^
is, 'p"~r^'
^^^
=9.7 mm. At the top of the condenser pressure is 102"92.3 meet cooHng surfaces at 15" C. and acquire let this vapor By the table we see that the temperature of say 20" C. a steam
is
pressure
in the condenser
17.5 mm., the is 102 mm., now
and, since the total air pressure
is 102
pressure "
17.5
="
84 5 84.5
Each
mm.
=8.6
times
as
stroke
much
air
of the air as
it would
pump
have
would
remove
removed
under
""
"
the
previous conditions. The
work
of the air pumps
can
be
enormously reduced by
r 376
EVAPORATING
HEATING.
JUICE
AND
(1) Reducing air leakage; (2) Using
the
(3),Reducing air pump
to
with
kilo.
per
vibsolute
clarification,and
in
for boiler
is used
the
that
pans
condenser in
this
and
pressure
of
the
air
displacement
pump
One
kilo
at
the
the
all the
C.
per
or
vacuum
air
into
carried
in
of
at
{273"+15")=288" and Find
cent.
first effect
air
of the water
be
C,
the
assumed
air
that
As
heated
will
volume
by
the
pheric atmos-
absolute, is the
the
volume
15)=21
kilos
efficiency of
air
minute:
per
requires 600-t-(43
steam
pipe
latter of
amount
that
is 80
pump
The
mm.;
temperature is 20"
in effects
carries
perature tem-
760
mm.;
from
assume
water
the
of the volume
cent
is 102
condensate
leakage.
to
barometer
C; suction
will
Assume
injection water. 5 per
the
as
air
(roughly) C;
sirup is small,it having been
injection
equal
case
is 15"
43"
sent
are
injection water
air pump
feed, we
except
steam
calorics
in the condenser
of air in the
the amount
of
600
water
orifice to
at
the
to
volume.
lose
and
of
discbarge
pressure
of vapor
going
vapors
kilograms
hour
per
Temperature of
clearance
no
1000
Suppose
condenser
the
to
necessary;
minimum.
a
"
of the
temperature
(4) Using pumps
Example.
than
injectionwater
more
no
"
injection
water.
Each 760
mm.
kilo and
of
288" 0.46
this becomes
contains
injection water absolute.
C, liter
At
84.5
0.05
liter
mm.
and
C.
760X0.05^84.5 ^^
Displacement
293"
at
by applying equations
PiVi^PiVi Ti
Ti
air
288
of air pump
volume
293 per
(21X1000X0.46)2X100
^__ =^^2
minute
*"
is
,.
^'^^'
60X80 The gases
effect of increased
passing
into
leakage
the condenser
higher temperature is readily calculated. or
of
PROPERTIES
247.
TABLE
A,"
DIFFERENT
OF
PROPERTIES VACUA
SATURATED
OF AND
377
STEAM.
SATURATED PRESSURES.
STEAM
AT
EVAPORATING
AND
JUICE
HEATINQ.
BVAFORATINO
AND
JUICE
BEATING.
"'.lit sals
sliSsSSSSIS!
S-BmSSRSSSSSSTiSSSsSE
z
I
1
I
c4(pe4oSr"C4oSS9oR^^O^O^S^
SRSSm2S"SSSS2""8KS22
1
3
ssstsss"sasssss
SUMMARY
OF
STEAM
CON8UMPTION
TESTS,
381
PURCHASE
OF
General
250* to the
at
of
"flat"
a
and
content
syston
ON
BASIS
A
Conslderatioiis.
lactones
sucrose
A
CANE
the
purchase
price,i.
test would
on
the
cane
as
would
cane
prcducdon
sugar
not
of his fidds
with
a
decrease
in costs
a
grower
and
ddiver
based
regard
to
a
the
upon
either
be
is not
the
will
purchase that
oi
operated without simple cme. degree Brix ocmtent
sucrose
fences purity. This method oooservalive price for the cane,
very
The
to the marufacturer.
of
coefficient
the
possible after cutting. Prompt ddivoy result in increased ddivery weight and
sranetimes
are
juice, without
pay
the grower.
care
excitingthe distrust ci the fanner Sales
considered.
not
undoubtedly increase
and
better
take
re^rds
quality, as
e., its
iNToblem of devising a system only equitable, but that may
The be
to
soon
as
the
of
forced
be
susually sold
is
purity of the juice,is
profitsof both the manufacturer would
Cane
"
ANALYSIS.
ITS
OF
the
of
the
or
the
factory
offset the
to
to
low
This purity of the juice in the early part of the season. method has probably been used en account of the fairiygood idea of
density (Banm^) real
The in the
hdd
by
cane
difficultyin devising
sampling of the
cane
itself.
a
in
fanners
system Somali
of
generaL purchase lies
samites from
cart
a
usually of very littlevalue in indicatingthe analysis and of the cane the juice for testing is eepeciallyso when The only method of sampling eaqxressedbyalaboratoiymilL that has given practicalresults is that ol the juice drawn from or
car
factory mills and
the This in
are
is inchided
method
'comparing Given
a
canes
in the
from
daily routine
the
various
fidds
of the is
an
cane,
step is the estimation Thk but
migjht be based the
of
oi many
a
railway particalar
of its sogiar upon
cane.
factories
and
representativesample of the joieefrom
lot of cane;, the next to the manufactarar. eonteat
representing the entire load
the
value
sucrose
diffieuhyof delcnnining
ol^ieelion. Tlie
method
sdeeied
must
this be
AS
SUGAR
better than
BASIS
A
OF
383
PURCHASE.
CANE
manufacturer
rough approximation in order to protect the and be fair to the farmer. Obviously, to be
equitable,the
method
a
of the available
be based
must
and
consideration
a
upon
of
cient figuringthis number, the coeffiof purity of the juiceand the efficiency of the factory The method described in the following paramust enter. graph, is in fact though apparently complicated, quitesimple. Cane Purchase. of Basis Available Sugar as a S51. ^A specialchemist and assistants are requiredfor these tests. sugar,
in
"
Reduction two
Factors.
reduction
chemist
should
first determine
factors,in cooperation with the chemist
factory, as follows: of the
^The
"
juicefrom
(1) Factor the
crusher
juice of all the mills.
for
of the
similar
(2) Factor
Brix
reducing the degree
that
to
of the
mixed
preceding
the
to
normal
crusher-juiceto that of the normal juice. The first factor has long been used and is regularly determined at intervals by the factory chemist (168). To det"*mine these factors,operate the millingplant for a short period without saturation-water; sample and separately analyze the juice from the crusher and the mixed juice from the entire plant. Calculate the ratio or factors, of the crusher-juice (1) Brix of the normal mixed juice-4-Brix for
reducing the per
and
(2),Sucrose crusher-juice.
per
Sampling." The and
the chemist
advised
is
to prepare
it is advisable The or
chemist
cent
notes
the
number
continuously and
in normal
juice-f- sucrose
of the cart
or
of
car
cent
per
cane
is noted
and is given a ticket bearing this number is to be samfor sampling. If cart cane pled, to group
the
crusher
juiceto
sucrose
cent
wash
he
a
the
if need
allows
of loads under
number
positionof
elevator,using markers
reaches
of the
a
cane
on
be, and
the conductor after the
definite interval
the rolls and
test.
one
cane
for the
pressed ex-
then
preferably samples brief intervals during
automatically or at The sample is sent to the laboratory the passage of the cane. with the ticket correspondingto it. Sample follows sample in this way.
Analysis, On receipt of the samples by the laboratory, A the samples and tickets are arranged in regular order. numbered cylinder is filled to overflowing with the strained juice and the remainder of the sample b held in reserve "
384
CANE.
OF
PURCHASE
pending the completionof the test. arranged in convenient inserted.
are
After
standing ten further
a
be
example, and after minutes the hydrometers
of ten, for
groups,
the latest to arrive has been
should cylinders
The
of five minutes
interval
The degree Brix and temperatures are to be noted. corrected Brix should observed be and Brix, temperature entered on a duplicate of the load ticket. These operations should be conducted allowing a definite systematically, very period for each. the
The
by Home's dry lead should The 234. laboratory equipment page considerable number of 200 cc. (approximate) test
sucrose
method, include
a
should
cylinders like C of Fig. etched
mark
on
it to
be
made
Each
39.
indicate
should
of these
have
approximately the
a
100
cc.
should be provided point. A spoon having a conical bowl of 1 gram It should hold about for measuring the dry lead. measurement. lead, struck Arrange a group of these cylinders,corresponding to those used for the density determination, and filleach to the mark the with juice. Add of lead to the juice,cover a measure **
"
cylinder with the palm of the hand and mix its contents by vigorousshaking. Filter, polarizeand calculate the sucrose Enter this test on the ticket. by Schmitz's table,page 468. Available sponding Sugar. Multiply the degree Brix by the corre"
reduction
factor
and
the
per
cent
by its
sucrose
gives the degree Brix and the per cent sucrose of the normal in terms the coefficient of juice. Calculate calculated by the method purity. The available sugar is new (;ivenon page 305, and this in turn to a basis of the factory normal by applying the efficiencyand juice extractionnumbers. The following example indicates the steps in the factor.
This
"
calculation:
Example: Factor
for
reducing the degree Brix
Factor
for
reducing the
per
cent
0.978 0.965
sucrose.
...
Degree Brix of the crusher-juice Per cent Assumed
18
in
crusher-juice mill extraction,normal juice. number the of efficiency factory
sucrose
....
Average
0 .
....
15
7 .
78.0 98
"
-
SUGAR
AI3
Brix
D^ree
BASIS
A
OF
calculated
of
mal nor-
juice Per
cent
=18.0
juice
Coefficient
juice.
extracted normal
find
we
gives
accordingly: 96"
be
the
11.29, from
method
given
results
the
the
basis
a
the
yield
of tory fac-
figure
yield
percentage
of
cane.
be
may on
on
sucrose
Since
reduce
must
we
expected this
of
sugar-house
actual
98
the
cane
11.52.
=
515
page
corresponding into
cent
per
cane
on
sugar
multiplied sugar
=
=11.82%
table
the
96**
11.82X97.43 is
may
reliability
The
of
11.52X0.98 that
sugar
yield
number
efficiency
of
number
efficiency,
factory
100
This
.78
X
of
number
yield
the
15.15
.1760=86.08
15.15
section
second
the
extracted
-
mills
=
the
97.43, purity.
X0.965
15.15-s-
=
the
by
to
86.1
to
:
juice
Referring
=17.60
lated calcu-
purity
normal
in
15.7
=
of
Sucrose
X0.978
calculated
sucrose
normal
385
PURCHABB.
CANE
judged
from
the
307.
page
.
method
This of
may
prices be
based
expected
enables
upon to
the
actual
the
give
manufacturer
in
his
yield
factory.
to
of
sugar
arrange
that
a
the
scale
cane
ANALYSIS
LIMESTONE,
OF
LIMESTONE.
OF
of
Preparation
252.
AND
ACID.
SULPHUROUS
ANALYSIS
SULPHUR
LIME,
the
Fragments should of pieces of the stone
Sample.
"
large number and reduced to a uniform si^e,then mixed and sub-sampled small to sample should be reduced by quartering. The iron mortar fine powder in an a on or a grindingvery or plate, plate. Particles of metallic iron, from the mortar be
chipped from
should
a
removed
by stirringthe powder with a magnet. Sift the powder through an SQ-mesh oughly sieve,and mix it thorby siftingor otherwise. of Moisture. Determination 2SS. Dry 2 grams of the powdered stone to constant weight in a tared flat dish be
"
should be heated to 110** C. watch-glass. The oven loss of weight divided by 2 and multiplied by 100 is
a
or
The
the percentage of moisture. of
Determination
Sand,
Clay, and Organic 1 grani of the Matter. limestone in a Treat powdered of hydrochloric acid, beaker, with a few cubic centimeters being cautious, in adding the acid, to prevent the projection 254.
"
of
particlesof with
beaker Collect
the
a
residue
100
is the
Place
is the
the
the
glass. Cover
liquida
few
the
minutes
quantitative filter,wash it reserve
filter and
the
filtrate (A) for
residue
to
constant
The
The
residue
weight
percentage of sand
silica and
and
water,
the
weight of the residue multipliedby percentage of sand, clay, and organic matter.
the filter and
incinerate.
heat
tared
a
Dry
110" C.
at
on
hot
treatment.
weight
from
watch-glass and
thoroughly with further
material
the
alumina.
The
in
a
tared
of this residue
platinum crucible and (A) multipliedby 100
and, clay, i.e.,silica and difference between
combined
this percentage 386
388
ANALYSIS
Treat
graph. Incinerate
LIMESTONE,
residue
the
before, wash
as
OF
it
on
the filter and
heat
weigh,
and
in the
preceding paragraph.
soluble
from
that
filtrates A, concentrate of pure
excess
boil it until collect while
the
alumina
B,
and
them
to
of
Iron
the
convenient
described
as
percentage of
the
obtain
the
centage persilicates.
Alumina.
bine Com-
"
preceding operations volume. Add a slight
the solution
it is still hot,
while
be detected, only a slight odor of ammonia can small filter, a precipitate on filteringrapidly is hot.
If there
is considerable dissolve
to
and
iron
predpitate
the
reprecipitate it with directed above, unitingthe filtrates (D). Partly
as
used,
are
and
incinerate
filters,and filters
ashless
and
from
hydrochloric acid
dilute
dry both
silica
in insoluble
as
to
filtrate (C).
bright redness,
to
silica,to
present, it is advisable
ammonia
of
Subtract
sand
a
the
residue
total
C
ammonia
solution
the
with
the
Determination
257.
the
acid
hydrochloric
reserve
percentage
silica present
of
and
the
of
dilute
filter and
a
calculate
with
ETC.
correction
no
silica.
for
advised
as
need
be
made
oxides
of
iron
If for
them. residue
The
ICO
mixed
and
percentage.
usually
not
alumina
the
obtain
to
is
It
the
(FcgOg, AljOg). Multiply the weight of the residue
alumina
by
of
consists
separately.
determine
to
necessary
the
axid
iron
If
required, however, proceed as of the with follows: Treat limestone 1 gram powdered concentrated hydrochloric acid, most conveniently in a with platinum dish. Evaporate to strict dryness, moisten again
hydrochloric acid, and for
described'
dilute
with the
filter
hydrochloric acid, with with
hot
water
alumina.
Wash
above,
sulphuric ticid,and
dryness. The
Wash in
cautious
iron
with
a
the
the is
and
the
water-bath,
Treat
heat, and treat
the
as
residue
the
filter;wash filtrate
with
precipitatethe iron and the precipitate into a small dish, dissolve
described
as
on
silica determination.
the
ammonia, it in
dry
now
use
evaporate
residue of most
standardized
to
the
into
an
the
solution
Erlenmeyer
nearly to fiask,being
water.
conveniently determined
tion by titra-
solution
of
of permanganate
sium. potas-
DETERMINATION
Add the
small
a
quantity of
flask,to reduce
the
titrate with
state, and
solution
This
zinc-dust
pure
from
iron
the
until
is added
solution in
the
to
ferrous
the
ferric to
decinormal
the
389
CALCIUM.
OF
tion. solu-
pennanganate
pink
faint peimanent
a
produced. Multiply the burette reading by .008 to of the stone, ascertain the weight of ferric oxide in 1 gram the percentage of ferric and this weight by 100 to obtain color is
(FcjOj); subtract
oxide
of iron
percentages
this per
cent
alumina,
to
and
from
combined
the
obtain
the
percentage
of alumina.
Determination
258.
iron
the 1
to
and
of the
gram
To
determination
(D), corresponding
add
stone,
it slightly acid.
render
to
alumina
of Calcium."
volume, neutralize and
add
excess
an
Set aside
twelve
for
residue
consists
anunonia, heat
on
hours, then a
of
to
to
venient con-
a
boiling, tion. solu-
of ammonium collect the
tate precipi-
wash quantitative filter, incinerate
ignite the
platinum crucible, then
The*
this solution
boiling-hotoxalate
(filtrate-"), dry and
water
tared
it with
of calcium
of oxalate
cold
of
hydrochloricacid
sufficient
Concentrate
the filtratefrom
almost
filter in
the
residue
calcium
pure
with a
strongly.
oxide
(CaO)
accurately,it may be weighed as such, or, more into the sulphate (CaSO^) or carbonate converted (CaCOj), labor to convert and It requires less time and weighed. into the sulphate, using the following solution: Add volume of sulphuric acid to an equal volume of one and
be
may
and
water,
neutralize
this acid, then
to it two
of ammonium
grams
Filter use
add
calcium
in
reagents Add
the
an as
must
parts
solution
in
of
the
strong ammonia
each
if necessar}'',
determinations. in
of
100 and
with
Dissolve
parts of ammonia.
chloride
be used
excess
three
2
of this solution.
cc.
preserve
it for
Strictlychemically
pure
preparing this solution. ammonium
sulphate solution,prepared
described,to the residue in the crucible,evaporate
dryness, ignite strongly,cool and weigh. The weight of the residue multiplied by .41158 gives the weight of calcium oxide (CaO), and by .73416 the weight of calcium carbonate of the stone, and these numbers plied multi(CaCOj), in 1 gram to
by 100 give the percentages and
calcium
carbonate
of calcium
respectively.
oxide
lime) (quick-
390
ANALYSIS
The
residue if
converted
preferred,as
follows:
carbonate, moisten
at
until
The
by
weight
of
weight
oxide.
calcium
by
The
is the
100
approximately
calciiun
oxide
product
is the percentage
of
100
add
cc,
gram
plied multi-
the
To
"
after
slight
a
1
carbonate
Magnesium.
determination,
in
substance.
of this
percentage
calcium
the
from
the
100
plied multi-
of calcium
weight of calcium
Determination
259.
of
tion operais calcium
of
carbonate
the
this
Repeat
carbonate
the
stone, multiplied by
of the
of
some
expel
80"C.,to
heat.
it
heat
water,
and
50^
weight
gives the
.56
it with
red
a
constant
a
obtained.
Ef
below
then
bonate, directlyinto calcium carMix it with finelypowdered
between
temperature
a
ammonia,
of
may
ETC.
LIMESTONE,
be
ammonium time
OF
filtrate
concentration
to
of ammonium
excess
hydrate,then add podium phosphate solution in excess, drop the magnesium to precipitate by drop, with vigorous stirring, as
a
After
phosphate.
of ammonia.
add
decided
a
excess
Set aside insure
to
fifteen minutes
in
night, during several hours, preferably overcomplete precipitation.Collect the precipitate
a
Gooch
a
wash crucible, of 0.96
part ammonia
1
washing
it with
dilute
specificgravity,to
be continued
should
ammonia,
until
taining con-
3
parts
of silver
drop nitrate solution added acidulated to a drop of the filtrate, with nitric acid, produces at most only a faint opalescence. The phosphate; diy precipitateis anmionium-magnesium The
water.
a
gentle heat, then increase the temperature to expel the ammonia, and finallyigniteit a few minutes in the the residue into pyrophosflame of a blast-lamp to convert phate of magnesium. Cool the residue in a desiccator and weigh it. The weight of the magnesium pyrophosphate (MgaPjOy) multiplied by .36208 gives the corresponding The magnesium is present in weight of magnesium oxide. it, first
at
limestone
a
as
carbonate.
by
.7574
Multiply the weight the
and
percentage of magnesium In
which
limestones
method
proposed
Herzfeld
*
and
by
Forster
1
product by
carbonate
contain
be
the
phosphate pyro-
to ascertain
100
the
in the stone.
very
little
magnesium,
Prinsen-Geerligsand may
of
used.
Zeit. RQbenzucker-Industrie,
Dilute
1896.
modified 2 grams
the
by of
391-
ACID.
CARBONIC
OF
DETERMINATION
hydrochloricacid in powdered stone with concentrated porcelain dish'. Evaporate the solution to dryness on
the
hot-plate
the solution
and
evaporate
part
of the acid.
calcium
of
excess
alumina
of
top
acid.
the
adhere
with
almost
decant
it
set
the
natant super-
filter,using hydrochloric
from
solution, as
the
of ammonium,
oxalate
the
the
the
to
in
precipitateby including precipitate,
Precipitate the calcium
in 25Sf
described
and
lime-water
flask to
Wash
an
iron
Stopper the flask and
Dissolve
may
add
and filtrate,
the
Add
fillthe
filter,and
a
before.
as
particleswhich
any
receive
water.
water.
liquid through decantation
water, and
precipitateto settle, then
for the
aside
with
neck
the
hot
filtrate,mix, then
the
to
a
the residue
Treat
precipitatethe
to
flask to
with precipitate
the
excess
carbonate, a
over
few
a
the solution with
filter,using
and
wash
Dilute
to
matter
a
drops of nitric acid, small bulk, to expel the greater
hydrochloric acid, boil,add
with
dry
the silica insoluble.
flame, to render
naked
the
heat
then
sand-bath,
or
a
and
remove
by filtration;precipitatethe magnesium as ammoniumit into the pyrophosmagnesium phate phosphate, and convert as already described.
it
Determination
260.
usually be
may
with
calculated lime
the
determine
to
necessary
from
Acid.
Carbonic
of
the
magnesia, except
and
acid,
carbonic
quantity required
the
when
is not
It
"
it
as
combine
to
sulphates
are
present.
gravimetric determination
The various is
forms
of the
one
is
of
tube of The
best
Knorr's
of these.
The
with
air
the
through B
preferably
to
more
with
a
of
contains
the
using this apparatus
acid
the
of
the
more,
into
distilled water. draw
during the
the The
current
a
entire
process. the stone,
for
caustic entrance
Open the stop-cockon
the acid slowly;
or
decomposing hydrochloric. The guard-tube
fragments prevent
of
filter-pumpto
apparatus
concentrated
is filled with
soda-lime,
or
cc.
is connected
bulb
the air.
50
the
apparatus, Fig. 94,
method
A
follows:
with
A G
as
of
one
weighed quantity, 5 grams finely powdered limestone, is introduced
the
flask
of alkalimeters.
is made
liberated
the gas
soda, potash, of
carbonic
bulb-tube passes
B
with
or
with
acid and
through
C
admit
the
con-
392
ANALYSIS
denaer
D, where
OF
ETC.
LIMESTOMB,
is condensed,
of the moisture
most
removes
the tared
through of
1.27
the
of
trace
every bulbs
F, containing
specific gravity, which
residual passes
and
moisture,
the The
should
gas
When
flow
bulb
the
at
the
carefully, finally boiling Iwnic a
few
acid.
tubes
absorption
should
after
minutes
carbonic outlet
Air
acid.
of F
while
of carbonic
iscompleted, place case,
in
and
weight
quotient
after divided
a
heat
the
be
few
by
multiplied by
be
patash
the
tion, solu-
abaorbs
and
minutes
to
the
the
the
weight
100
is the
of
of
expel
When F
the
to
flarii car-
for
inlet and prevent
the
the
operation
in the
Ijalance-
them.
The
material
used
percentage
the
of all tite
the
over
second.
aj^jaratus
removal
guard-tubes
weigh
per
contents
weighings,
moisture.
filter-pump.
5 bubbles
placed
the
making
the bulbs
|
F, which
through
insure
to
or
j
acid, and
the
and
the
passed
should
acid
potash solution
carbonic
liquid slowly,
boiling,
Caps
G
of 4 to
rate
is empty,
B
bubblca
gas
94.
through
ecapes
the
guard-tube
Fra.
dry
caustic
from
water
the
through
on
a
absorbs
air, containing
the
water;
!
sulphuric acid,
through the bulbs E, containing concentrated which
thence
increase and
of carbonic
the acid.
DETERMINATION
A
similar
apparatus
flask,with
cork
connections
and
apparatus, proceed
Fig.
refers to
Fill the
95.
acid
with
2
to
the
Lift the stopper open the acid. In the carbonic ^"
The
description the
left,to above
sulphuric
right with dilute Weigh the flask and the
approximately 1.5 powdered limestone, by
the
at
and
D.
concentrated
of the
opening
rec-
introduce
then
grams
as
Schroetter's
with
the
on
that on acid, and acid. hydrochloric
contents,
tube,
U
follows:
as
tube
bulb,
upper
ordinary
an
of the condenser
carbonic
of
using
empty
an
393
ACID.
fitted up,
be
may
determination
the
similar
or
CARBONIC
by Gladding, instead
commended In
OF
tube, hydrochloric-acid
the
on
weigh again.
left,and
admit
stop-cock and
decompositionof
acid is set free and
little
a
the stone, the
bubbles
through
retains any watery otherwise pass o"f with the gas. that would Repeat vapor acid carbonic time time until to no this operationfrom more the
"
sulphuricacid, which
gently disengaged. Heat from the solution, cool, and is
wiping
the
case
a
few
that
of
that
of
100
to
The
to
acid expel the carbonic weigh. After cooling and
apparatus, it should be placed inside the
balance-
weight i*^ acid set free. Divide this weight hy the carbonic used and the limestone multiplythe quotient by minutes
obtain
before
weighing.
the percentage of carbonic
carbonic
acid
in the
loss in
The
limestone
acid. in sugar
used
facture manu-
calciiun;a small with magnesium. sionally Occain combination portion is sometimes the stone contains a vein of dolomite,a carbonate is almost
of calcium In
the
and
entirelycombined
magnesium. of calcium
the
percentages
are
given, the percentages The
acid
or
of
magnesium the
two
percentage of calcium
percentage of calcium carbonic
sulphate of calcium,
of gypsum,
absence
calculated:
with
in
the
carbonate
magnesium
and
if either
carbonic
carbonates
acid be
may
oxide
(CaO) Xl.7857
(CaCOj);
the percentage
carbonate
(MgCOj)
=
of
tiplied mul-
by 1.91(5=the percentage of magnesium carbonate. contains 54.8 per cent A sample of limestone Example. calcium oxide and 43.4 per cent carbonic acid; required,the "
percentages of calcium
and
magnesium
carbonates.
394
ETC.
LIMESTONE,
OF
ANALYSIS
Calculation. 54.8
1.7875=97.96,
X
97.96
=43.16, carbonic
54 J5
"
"43.16
43.4
calcium
percent
in
acid
0.24, carbonic
"=
carbonate.
acid
calcium
the
-
in
bonate. car-
the
magnesium
magnesium
carbonate.
carbonate. 1.916
0.24 X
0.46, the
"
cent
per
calculate
sugar-house chemists
Many
order
in
this way,
economize
to
will supply all the
method
time.
the
In many
information
in
caibonates
this
cases
relative necessary usuallyadvisable to
purity of the stone, but it is not depend entirelyupon it. A serious objection to this process is the fact that there may in the determinations be slighterrors to
the
calcium
of the
false both
deductions. bases
the
the
and
limestone
Digest
5
a
small
more
the
drops
at
boilingand a
a
cium, of cal-
sulphuric
powdered limestone ter Dilute the solution,fil-
beaker, to
add
The
"
of the
hydrochloricacid, using heat. it,and wash the residue thoroughly with
heat it to
of
percentage
with
a
Acid.
quantities of sulphate
from
or
grams
in the filtrate,
lead to
rule, to determine
Sulphuric
of
is calculated
which
would
which
acids.
contain
may
acid
advisable, as
It is
Determination
261.
acid.
carbonic
and
solution
volume
a
of barium
centrate Con-
hot water. of about
50 cc,
chloride,a few move Re-
time, maintaining the boiling temperature.
lamp, after each addition of the chloride, to permit the barium sulphate to settle,and test the Continue the boiling supernatant liquid for sulphuric acid. the
from
beaker
of the solution
and
the
additions
the
of the
reagent so long as a Collect the precipitated
precipitateforms; set aside over night. barium wash it with sulphate in a tared Gooch crucible, hot water, heat it to redness,cool and weigh it. The weight of barium sulphateX. 343 -^ weight of limestone used X 100 percentage of sulphuric anhydride (SOj); the weight of =
barium =
sulphateX
.5833
percentage of calcium 262.
Notes
on
be necessary in some portion of the stone
weight of sulphate. -=-
tlie Analysis of the
than
limestone
of Limestone."
determinations
1 gram.
used X 100
to
use
It may a
larger
If so, it is convenient
to
396
ANALYSIS
(e) Heat add
OF
filtrate and
the
from
washings
solution
concentrated
a
ETC.
LIMESTONE,
oxalate
of
(d)
boiling,
to
also
of ammonium,
boiling. Allow the mixture to stand until clear, which, if the analysishas been rightlyconducted, requirestwo heated
to
three
or
decant
minutes;
dissolve
the
solution
clear
the
hydrochloric add
precipitate in
cipitatewith ammonium hydrate. Allow as before, and then wash the whole the
filter and
and
oxalates.
wash
with
into
hot
until
water
filter,
a
and
repre-
settle and
to
cant de-
precipitateinto chlorides
free of
Dry the filter and contents, ignite in a blasta crucible,at first cautiously, then over
platinum lamp, until (CaO); weight
the
cool
under
as
a
Divide normal
calcium
into
oxide
calculate
and
desiccator, weigh
a
of calcium
to terms
methods. acid
is converted
residue
the
(CaCOj) as in the previous with normal hydrochloric
carbonate
Titrate the residue
check.
percentage of calcium
the
hydrochloricacid
carbonate calcium
for
required
by
(=cc. of
5
carbonate),
of cubic centemeters quotient from the number of normal hydrochloric acid required for (a), and multiply the remainder by 4.2 to obtain the percentage of MgCOj.
subtract
the
Sundstrom
that
states
this
ANALYSIS
"
Determination
Add
to form
in
the
form
of
with Transfer
the
portions cc;
with
a
a
of
the
mix
of the 264.
the
=
lime, and
the X
Oxide
in Lime.
filter. of
lacmoid
weight 100
Determinatio^
=
Brix
to
a a
of
grams
excess
forms
residue
mortar
10
an
of 35-40"
above
solution
phenolphthalein or readingX.028
and
Calcium
Add
lime, which
and
normal
rapid and
LIMB.
ca.) to
cc.
solution
solution
from
(30
thick milk.
the
solution
sugar
100
a
OF
of the
sufficient water
mortar,
very
for technical purposes.
accurate sufficiently
263.
is
method
lime, in
of pure and mix
soluble 100-cc.
sucrose
mately it inti-
saccharate.
flask,using
the compositon to wash and to complete the volume Titrate
10
of
cc.
hydrochloric acid as
an
of calcium
indicator. oxide
a
the
a
last to
filtrate
(300), using The
(CaO) in
percentage of calcium oxide. of the Proportion of
burette 1 gram
Un-
DETERMINATION
burned
and add
water, heat
OF
Slaked an
Lime.
expel carbonic
to
solution
cochineal the
of lime
gram
with
sulphuric acid (302) and
if present;
other
or
1
suitable
add
few
a
drops of
indicator,and
tain ascer-
sulphuric acid used, by titration with hydrate (304). Calculation: (cc. of nonnal of
excess
sodium
normal
acid
397
OXIDE.
Slake
"
normal
of
excess
CALCIUM
soda the solution)X. 028 sulphuric acid" cc. of normal total weight of calcium, as calcium of the oxide,in 1 gram "
lime, andX
This
oxide.
number
slaked
and
Metliod.
with
lime
Both
"
calcium
as
oxide
calcium
as
of Gaicium
Determination
ner-LiUnge
calcium
percentage of calcium
"
of unbumed 265.
of total
the percentage
100=
oxide.
Oxide, etc.
the above
centage per-
"
Dege-
determinations
may
titration, using phenacetoline as suggested i"y Degener and appUed by Limge. Slake a Weighed portion of the lime with water, add a few be made
one
drops of phenacetoline solution and titrate with normal the acid until the yellow color hydrochloric acid. Add This reading mul-^ changes to a red, and read the burette. Continue tipliedby .028 gives the weight of calcium oxide. of a red color the addition of the acid; the solution remains calcium
is saturated, then
until aU
the
yellow.
It is advisable
to
practice with material burette reading multipliedby
calcium are
calcium
as
determined
limestones
known
of
golden
few
times
composition.
The
gives the total weight
.028
unbumed
The
a
a
and
slaked
of
limes
by difiference.
Complete
206.
oxide.
to
this titration
make
for
dhanges
Analysis.
be
may
applied for
The
"
methods
further
a
described
for
analysis of the lime
if required. ANALYSIS
OP
SULPHUR
Estimation
267.
of
AND
the
SULPHUROUS
Impurities.
of the powdered sulphur to gram at well-fitted glass stopper. Add
bromine-water
saturated dissolves
2 to 3.25
and,
part
of
as
at
the bromine
water
flask
a
per cent of bromine least 15 parts bromine
to
insure
to
U3e
Transfer
"
0.5
provided with
time
one
shake
and
sulphur, it is advisable
ACID.
an
a
of
excess
thoroughly. Water at ordinary temperatures,
from
are
required 275
to
400
for cc.
1 of
sufficient of the reagent for the
398
ANALYSIS
ozidation
of
to
expel
with
Wash
the the
hot
convenient
sulphur
in
acid
practical
impurities
freedom
cent
f eld
Pass
M
If
acid. volume must
of
gas
collected
be
and
dried
water,
sulphate
barium
(SOa)
the
in
1
the
quantitative
a
in
of
1911,
used
gas
917;
the
is
and
the
filter
and
weight
a
Sugar
Journ.,
washed
phuric sul-
sulphate with
weight
sulphuric
1912,
cipitate pre-
measured
of
anhydride
used.
Int.
tion por-
of
of
precipitated
The
per
addition
desired,
of
a
presence
be
50
insoluble
An
redness.
to
the
X0.343='
in
to
Test the
by
by
40
a
minutes.
test
Gooch
a
ignited
volume
Zeitschrift.
be
must
into
acid.
forms
color
recommended
acid
hydrochloric
its
Sulphurous
in
gas
twenty
ity qual-
fragments.
is
sulphuric
sulphate
barium
of
of
Its
from
Acid
acid
to
ten
for
and
chloride
barium
phuric sul-
accuracy
pure.
small
method
for
solution
the
cf
of
percentage
determined and
sulphurous
the
soliitiop
sucrose
the
the
of
sufficient
very
Salptauric
of
following
^The "
Her/
of
percentage
the
usually
dust
from
Estimation
Adds.
is
satisfactorily
be
generally
268.
is
100.
roll-sulphur
relative
and
and
that
from with
or,
residue crucible
The
subtracting
by
purposes,
Commercial can
(261),
filtrate
the
from
directly
calculated
be
may
tion solu-
weight
The
impurities.
of
percentage
the
Gooch
A
residue.
the
the
collect
weigh.
and
dry
collecting
200*
X
bromine,
of
Boil
acid.
sulphuric
to
excess
water;
for
residue
for
sulphur
ETC.
LIMESTONE,
OF
14,
113.
hot the
LUBRICATING
Applied
Tests
209. oil tests
be
may
expensive
OILS.
Lubricating
to
in the
made
given here, while
Some
assuring the
not
^A
"
few
out sugar-house laboratory with-
specialapparatus.
or
Oils.
of the
methods will
greatest accuracy,
for sugar-house purposes. The analysis generally answer linity acidityor alkausually includes the "cold test," viscosity, and purity tests. Pour a portion of the oil,to the depth Cold Test. 270. "
and
approximately one
of
in
three-eighths inches
and
one
inches, into
half
a
test-tube
a
diameter.
Plunge
the
stir with and thermometer a freezing mixture until the paraffinebegins to separate, or until the oil ceases Remove the tube from the incliningthe tube. to flow, on into
tube
mixture the
be
cold
be
a
beginning with
noted
temperature a
one
of the
at
which Test.
flow-viscosimeter.
of the
mean
the
as
oils,and
separation of
note
oil
The test
readings
two
temperature
with
certain
of
other
the
not paraffine canthe reading is made at
hence
The
light and
Repeat the
test.
another,
the "
the
paraffinedisappears.
the
dark
very
and
eye
entire
the
accuracy,
Viscosity
271.
in
With
test.
the
record
and with
best
the
which
during
times
agree
oils, the
with
stirred
three
which
the
at
temperature
or
the
it between
hold
and
oil must two
a
to
ceases
viscosity
flow. be
test may
Engler's viscosimeter
made
is shown
is arranged for accuinner or oil-chamber The rately Fig. 06. is surrounded measuring the oil. This chamber by closes the exit-tube. A plug at the center water-bath.
The
is
apparatus
the exit-tube under In
making
a
so
arranged the
same
test, the inner
that
the
conditions chamber
oil will flow
through in comparative tests.
is filled to
the 399
mark
400
LUBHICATING
with
water
the
water-bath.
seconds
during
The
ia notel
that
experiment by
the
is
plug
lifted
required
u
temperature, and this
standard
other
or
ia maintained
temperature of
29' C.
at
OIL8.
for
and
200
means
the
time
in
of
water
to
is used
in
cc.
^
flow
into
timing
the
the
dried
cham)"er
oil
the
of
for the
flow
divided
by
a
will
given
that
teat
is
the can
in
made
a
the
the
oil.
volume
a
the
the
time
time 200
cc.
ie usual,
cumber
the
of
It
of
The
at
This
flow
of the oil to flow
same
absence be
for of
oil.
lifted and
again
of oil is noted.
cc.
required
volume
the
thoroughly
next
are
maintained
are
the viscosity as
the
temperature, In
tube
bath
specificvisoosity
pass
the
atop-watch
is filled with
plug
of 200
oils, to state tor
and
The
temperature.
ia the
A
and
the ctiamber
and
ture
flask.
flow.
inner
The
graduated
of eeconds
through
standard
an
tempenstandard
required in seconds of
water
testing
in
reqtund
orifice, which
oil,
at
the
saoie
given time of
a
with
viscosimeter, a
a
large pipette
moderately The
accurate
pipette should
'
TESTS
have
FOR
ACIDITY
be heated
to the
,
it should
and
oil
oil that
other
or
of
cc.
pipette is then
its flow
is noted Redwood
cordingto of 50
F.
at 60^
the
means
the
sample
time
required rape-
pure
in
of
state
a
for the
of
flow
of
a
to
be tested
and
before.
Ac"
conditions
same
average
rape-oil,with
of
cc.
the
obtained
required
by
noted
filled with
under
with
standardized
easily be
rape-oilis
the
be
may time in seconds
The
great purity. The
4di
ALKALINITY.
water-jacket that the oil may
a
temperature
50
AND
stop-watch.
as
required for the flow
his visco^meter,
is 535
seconds
in viscosityof the oil under examination of the viscosity of rape-oilis calculated as follows: terms of seconds required for the flow of 50 Multiply the number and divide the product by 535 (seconds cc. of the oil by 100 the
and
at 60" F.); multiply required for the flow of 50 cc. of rape-oil this quotient by the specific tion, gravityof the oil under examina-
the
the
of
experiment, and divide by .915 the specific gra\ityof rape-oilat 60" F. It is very difficult to graduate the orifice of a pipette to siderable give the desired flow. For houses of large size using conquantities of oil,it is desirable to provide a viscqsiat
temperature
important in judging of the oil for the required purpose. the suitability for Tests 272. Acidity and Alkalinity." Shake a The
meter.
test viscosity
portion of the oil with After for
oil and
the
acidity and Oils
paper.
are
273.
alkalinity.It usuallytreated
Purity Tests." and
the latter,which
testing
vegetable fats method:
bath is in
and
water
to
with
a
after
should mineral
a
be
soda.
oil for
oils,proceed
The
otherwise
test-
to
two
to
acid
the
portion of the clear and
remain
neutral
cially espe-
bearings
oil with
dis*
separate, examine
transparent.
admixture
with
animal
or
follows
by the tion saponificaTransfer a weighed portion of the oil,e.g., 2 and heat it in a watersteampressure-bottle, or
25
and
a
test-tube.
a
sulphuric acid followed
with
allowing the
cc.
of alcoholic
prepared by dissolving 40 one
should
caustic
Boil
in
standing, test the latter
on
be
tilled water,
grams,
distilled water
hot
completelyremoved, machinery may be injured.
of the
In
most
separate
water
by washing with should
is the
litre of 95
per
cent
as
potash solution. grams
alcohol.
of
good
The
This
caustic
solution
solution
potash must
be
r 452
LUBRICATING
filtered
if not
The
of
Continue
flask
from
time
bottles
the
be
the
transfer it
several
flable
the
times
with
matter
ether
to
the
oil
alcohol
oil,
be
present
by
tion, distilla-
and
extract
oil; The
residue.
vegetable
or
titrations
two
mineral
the
remove
weigh
animal
i.e.,
the
fimnel,
separatory
a
and
saponification
The
in
above, of
cc.
of
grams
extract
weigh residue
present.
the the
oil;
contents
mineral
residue,
weigh
closed
58
less
also
may
rate evapo-
saponi-
determined
is
100
heat of
by
oil
flask
with
ether;
consisting than
to
2
of
the
grams
a
the
distilled as
before;
evaporate
pure
sium potas-
cool, funnel
the oil.
saponifiable
scribed dePour
water,
separatory
mineral
as
alcohol.
of
hot hour
one
the
without
grams
of
grams
conducted,
be
flask, but
containing in
the
the
transfer
test
a
solution
a
hydroxide 2
to
animal
of
difference.
the
2
residue
using
absence
of
the
remove
the
titrate
(300),
saponifiable
a
titration,
solution
ether
the
Should
the
the
only.
reagent
acid
the
parallel
A
the
hydrochloric
strong
revolving
and
oils, the. results
and
same.
by
indicated
with
In
Kjel-
the
with
contents.
temperature
indicator.
an.
fats
vegetable
should as
as
its
blank,
room
half-normal
phenolphthalein and
in
made
down
hour,
one
mix
in
pressure-bottles.
tifed
about
to
the
to
with
contents
time be
be
must
heating
to
should
experiment Cool
the
used
suitable
are
bottle
the
flasks
The
determination
stopper
twine.
clear.
perfectly
nitrogen
dahl
OILS.
ether,
upon and and and
Should
the
bodies
are
404
For
tiibe C:
of hot of
tube
cupric chloride solution
parts
suffident
Wash
washing
a
little bottle
dilute few
BS
with
U
jMece
200
the
solution
jneoes
of copper
tube
D.
of copper
cc,
use
Each wire
to
separatee
wire
or
Wash
of the in it.
120 copper
the solution
of
grams
add
the
to
coloc
its
from
as
white
a
several
after
times
the
should the
precipitate
of
turnings time
glass tubes
to time
in
D
into and
Place
water.
in
In
be exposed
hydrochloric add cc.
last
predpitate.
the
chloride
air.
about
and
to
of concentrated with
and
precipitate
close
cuprous
the
35
change
to
water, the
water
the
possible
sti^per it, and in
off the
manipulations
these as
pour
of water
decantation,
by
water,
Kssolve
of
solution
a
87.
in
chloride, insoluble
distilled
with
filled with
chloride
staimous
crystalline precipitate.
be
quantity
Fio.
Cuprous
parts
solution
caustic-potasaum
follows:
as
small
a
of
is to
tube
prepared in
in 50
pyrogsllic add
Briz.
This
D:
chloride
cuprous
100
50"
approximately Fcrr
5 parts of
Dissolve tind add
water
PLtTEtaASBS.
OP
ANALYSIS
the as
should
a
bottle, required have
a
SAMPLING
followingmethod
The
chloride:
cuprous
bottle, add a
200
cc.
then add
chloride
the
bulb, oil may
be
may
of the
obtained
making it in the laboratory.
of
bulb then connected
the rubber
Stopper the
foil.
and
be filled half full of the solutions
should
tubes
U
and
hydrochloricadd copper
a
water.
cc.
Ready prepared cuprous dealers,and used, instead The
or
in
cupric chloride
days, shaking it occasionally,
it aside for two
set
120
turnings
preparing the
in
used
of
35
grams of concentrated
quantity of copper
bottle and
also be
may
Place
405
FLUE-GASES.
OF
with
the branches,
or
in lieu of
poured on the surfaces of the liquids. The bulb is preferable, however. 276. Sampling of Flue-gases and their Analysis. A piece of half -inch iron pipe should be inserted into each flue, leading to the chimney, reaching about half-way to of the flue. A double-actingrubber-bulb the center pump, be
"
suitable
with
flue and
valves, is used
discharging it into bulb
The
several times, to and with
expelall
pinch-cock.
a
the air it or
the
sample and
a
as
ceiver. re-
have
to
closed
tube
of
humbet
a
drawn
be
may
contain,
may
its rubber
duplicatesamples
analyzingthe samples proceed
In
and
the
open
fills the cock
burette
pinch-cock
and
from
tube
U
Open the
rise to still
the
tube
the
mark if the
D^in
and
then
the
let the
and
on
the
upper
pressure same
at
and
D
until the water
connecting and
3-way F
with
lightplug
a
of
E.
cautiouslyopen
the
cock
caustic-potassium solution
part
is not
way,
BC
on
table.
is connected
branch
B
tube
little water
a
pinch-cock and
U
more
rubber the
on
containing
in each
cotton
the
on
Fill the bottle
close the
mark, then
upper
place F
the burette, and A
the
to
:
the cocks
G to the air; lift F
cock
3-way
follows
as
close
F, Fig. 97,with distilled water,
C
used
flue.
each
on
bulb
the pump
It is convenient
that
Jbulbs so
these
soft rubber
a
the
from
the gas
drawing
should be filled with the gases and emptied
be filled with
then
in
of the
tube, lowering F
sufficient.
Fill the
fillingthe burette
with
tubes water
With by altering the position of the bottle F. of each the absorption branch u tube filled with its solution each
and
time
the
burette
with
water,
the
apparatus
is
ready
for the
r 406
ANALYSIS
Connect
tests.
the
sample-bulb with the small
the
permit a little of the
E and
side branch
FLUE-GASES.
OF
of the
gas to escape
3-way
cock
G,
U tube
into the air to
on
through
expell the air
or
previous sample from the connections. with the apparatus, and Open the cock to G to connect the the pinch-cock on the water-tube and let the gas displace in the
water
that
the bottle F,
in it will be level with
of the water
the
disconnect
Hold
burette.
sample-bulb and
levels of the water
the
zero
of the burette,
manipulate the cock
in the
bottle
Lift the
the
that the level
so
F
bottle
and
G
burette
so
will
and
caut'ouslyopen the cock on /?, and let the gas displacethe caustic potassiuni, and emptying the (J tube with gas by manipulating filling time lettirgthe water above the the bottle,bat at no rse caustic potassium solution The the burette. ICO mark on As soon will absorb the carbonic acid. as absorption ceases,
be
the
same.
hold the bottle with the surface of the water of that in the burette
and
note
the burette
in it at the level
reading,which is
tlie percentage bf carbonic acid (CO2). Next repeat these manipulationswith the residue of the gas using (J tube C. the total
Note
reading of the burette and subtract it to
obtain
the
first
the
percentage of oxygen (O). reading from last residue of gas as before,using Again proceed with the second burette reading subtracted The from U tube D. the third gives the percentage of carbonic oxide (CO). The of nitrogen(N) final residue usuallyconsists almost entirely and the percentage is obtained by subtracting the third The gases may contain very small burette reading from 100. quantitiesof sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphurous add; these introduce a slighterror in the determinations. Sulphuretted hydrogen is tested for with filter-paper lead acetate with moistened or subaoetate,which turns black
in the
of the gas. be detected acid may
presence
Sulphurous
by shaking
a
the gas in a test-tube with iodized starch solution. acid is present the blue color is discharged. After from The and
each
analysisthe
the apparatus
and
residual
the
gas
burette
should be well greased with tallow. mutton cocks
should
mixture
If this
be^expelled
left filled with a
littleof
water.
of vaselino
QUALITY
THE
OF
TREATMENT
chemical
The
WATER-SUPPLY,
THE OF
IMPURE
composition of the
is of
A
importance.
AND
WATER.
supplied
water water
be
may
sion-battery diffu-
to
a
so
heavily
matter and organic impurities as to charged"with mineral The essential seriouslyaffect the qualityof the diffusion-juices. requirements for water used in the millingprocesf except for the generationof steam, are that it be cool and dean. ,
Sugar-house.
and
waters
waste
is often
It
"
Waters*
Waste
of
Treatment
277,
them
return
to
waters, if required for the condensers
this
The
most
means
of
cooled.
be
must
cooling is by
in
usually constructed consbts
of
framework
The
entire
the
ground.
of the
apparatus
vacuum
"of
accomplishing
Such
tower,
a
as
in
and
beet-sugar countries, several stories in height. The ^oor-
of each story, in
timbers
above
a
sugar-house. Such
the
water-toWer.
Cuba
the '
practicalplan a
the
economize
to
necessary
from
Europe,
should
structure
The
are
usually covered extend
feet
30
is
waste-water
with or
lows. wil-
^ore
froi^ the
pumped
sugar-house to the top of the tower, and then flows or drips lows or down through th^ wilthrough openings in the framework floor to
from This
lowers
treatment
considerably,and of
the In
oi^anic
also
the
The
by the carbonic The
378. "
should
it should
and
acid waters of lime
of lime
in
a
pond.
water
very the oxidation
is
to
in
be
used
slight excess
i^the Is
an
completely precipitated
acid of the air.
for
Water-supply of
solid matter
determined,
and
submitted
to
be
the
itaprovesits qualityby
impure excess
^The amount be
of
temperature
diffusion-battery,the addition advantage.
finallycollected
matter.
of very
case
is
floor, and
if in a
the
tery. Diffusion-bat-
contained
excess
of
.3
in the
part per
water
1000
quantitative analysis. If the 407
r 408
analysisshows the
be
of .3 part per
excess
of waters,
for
possible in the selection of water that containing sulphate of sodiimi these
juiceswould affect the
accumulate
to
of crystallization
depositson
the
of
tubes
it also continues incrustations
forms
and
to on
Bicarbonates
apparatus. in the
the
the
materially
to
of calcium
Sulphate
sugar.
of
the
move; heaters,and is difficult to rebe deposited in the evaporation, the tubes of the multiple effect
lime
of
T^ellsof the
avoided, since
be
sufficiientextent
a
the chlorides
or
in the concentration
and melassigenic,
are
far
So
diffusion-battery,
a
magnesium, calcium, etc., should
salts
tion examina-
for the
calcium,
or
in
not
are
quantitativeanalysis.
on
as
of
solids
methods
For
1000.
works
see
if the
rejected even
calcium,
of
large proportion of sulphate
a
should
water
SUPPLY.
WATER
THE
OF
QUALITY
magnesia
and
battery, and
posed decom-
are
the
depositedon
are
impede the diffusion. seeking to improve waters containingsulphate
chips and In
substitute
we
sodium
salt in
for the
lime, still leaving
solution; but
obtain
we
heating its solutions,or of the juices. the concentration
depositedon For the To
add
improvement
waters
milk
of
formed
are
To
precipitated. containing sulphate
in
as
follows: and
magnesia, carbonates
normal
lime
is
sodium
of lime, add
precipitated and
the
sodium
bonate. car-
sulphate
in solution.
containingbicarbonates
waters
chlorides
the
of lime and
and
certain
systems
iron
a
Sodium
of lime
sulphates of these
and
magnesia
bases, add
mechanical
of
filtration, employing alum
by
removed
impurities are or
chloride
of
coagulaat. may
be
substituted zeolite
for
in the
lime
and
magnesia
as permutite process. through zeolite is regenerated by treating it with a common the lime and sodium replacing solution,the magnesia.
filtration
milk
caustic soda.
oiganic and
Many as
lassigenic me-
b not
serious extent
a
of lime
The
very
a
salt which
and
waters
remains
and
proceed
containing bicarbonates lime in slight excess.
The
To
of waters
to
a
lime,
of
by The salt
FERMENTATION. Fennentatioil.
379,
of
Ferment.
"
capable
substance
pr()ducingfermentation. Vinous
alcoholic
or
in temperature
fermentation. ^Liquid disturbed; rise and increase in volume; carbonic acid escapes, "
forming peculiar bubbles 15"
between
18" and
rapidly; it
very
liquid.
18" C. is favorable
and
the
30"
is checked
of the
15" C. and
below
this fermentation;
to
fermentation
A
prooeeds
entirely
ceases
12" C.
below
fermentation. ^The favorable
Acetic
with
surface
the
on
between
temperature
35" C.
ropy
substance.
Viscous
lime
Use
solution
to
check
turbid
becomes
sediment
and
starchy
and
matters
substances.
follows the
eliminate
tanks
with
this ferment
Lactic
a
sugar
is checked
may
dilute
transformed takes is
solution
(5-per cent exist in the
acrid, taste
is repulsive.
into
place
taneously. sponcharacteristic.
hydrogen are liberated. sulphuric-acid solution to
"
Odor
are
is
acid and
fermentation. ^This fermentation and
acetic
thick, slimy,
becomes
mucilaginous appearance
quantities of carbonic the
and
this fermentation.
fermentation
This
clears up
fetid odor
"
is filled
viscous; ammonia
and
deposits. The fermentation. ^The solution a
A
Wash
Finally, the solution
tween be-
are
turbid, and
"
free,and
gununy
liquidbecomes
fermentation. ^This fermentation The
stage.
Small
The
acid is formed.
Putrid
ropy;
temperatures
"
20" and a
acetic
set
Any
"
very
by acidity; hence
presence
of 66" takes of the
acid).
place spontaneously, viscous
ment.. fer-
disagreeable. This ferment use sulphuric add in washing
the tanks.
fermentation. Sugar-cane juices are
Mucous
"
this ferment
Mannite, becomes
in the presence
gum
thick
and and
carbonic
of
attacked
by
nitrogenous bodies and the air. acid
are
formed.
The
ropy. 409
liquid
SPECIAL
either (a) directlyfrom this
coloring matter
should
be
not
This solution
Solntion."
Litmus
280.
REAGENTS.
azolitmin
pure
without
used
prepared (6,c) by separating
or
litmus.
crude
from
maybe
The
crude
litmus
purificationof the azolitmin
in
the test-paper, preparation of either the solution or since the other coloringmatters present impair the sensibility. the
(a) Dissolve alcohol
containingabout
(6) Boil
100
and
residue.
to about
the filtrate to 300
with
a
and
it aside
acid.
Heat
it with
litmus cool
and
with
and
16.2
the mixture
cold water,
peculiarfieryred color and
deposit
on
dilute
100
the
of
the
on
and
add
grams
cc.
the
cc.
of
pire
the water-
precipitatewhich til the washings pssume the
addition
on
and
four hours
up
600
evaporate it
distilled water
frequent stirring. Collect wash
alcohol, by
cent
it as indicated in (6).
to
containing
of dilute
cc.
Filter the concentrate
cc.
with
cc.
sulphuric acid
concentrated
forms
200
per
preserve
the clear sDlution
Decant
water-bath
set
of 85
cc.
in 100
commercial
of
grams
of distilled water
bath
20
Filter the solution and
weight.
dilated
azolitmin
of pure
1 gram
of caustic
alkali
a
Reject the washings and dissolve out the purifiedcoloring-matterwith 100 cc. lukewarm few drops of ammonia 90 per cent alcohol to which a been Distill off the alcohol, after filtration, added. have the water-bath. the residue to dryness on and evaporate deep blue and
Dissolve neutralize
not
the
dried
residue
solution
the
solution should have Litmus
violet color.
a
solution
a
in 600
with pure
of distilled water
cc.
sodium
hydrate.
The
and
neutral
violet tint.
decomposes
when
stored
in
stoppered be kept in a salt-mouth It should bottle. bottle, which and a loose plug should be only half filled with the solution, of cotton should be placed in the mouth of the bottle to keep out
dust and
admit ^
A.
a
air.
Puschel, Oest. Chem.
Zeit.,13, 185. 410
412
this
BEAGENTS.
SPECIAL
haying in
dry the brown
just verges sensitive
a
brown
all
for
The
factory
is
This paper
tint.
exceedingly reddish
a
neutral
paper
usually sufficiently curcumin
The
purposes.
an
turns
paper
yellow with add.
alkali and on
again n^itralized. Again
This
is obtained.
paper
with
been
repeat these operations until
and
paper
sensitive
the meantime
be
may
by the followingmethod: Evaporate the alcoholic solution,obtained as in the preceding with the residue method, to dryness and extract
extracted
ether.
to form
a
solution
purer
and
Filter this extract
from
ether
the
remove
the
Dissolve the by distillation and dry the residue. this residue in alcohol and precipitatethe curcumin from solution with acetate of lead. After washing this precipitate
solution
and alcohol, suspend it in water decompose it with hydrogen sulphide gas. Collect the precipitateon a filter and it with water wash and then dry it. Dissolve the curcumin this solvent from the precipitatewith ether and remove by evaporation. The residue is very pure curcimiin. with
Turmeric
or
the control
curcuma
of the
of sufficient sensitiveness
paper
ordinsirydefecation
first method.
This
control
first carbonation.
this
of the
use
acid and
much
It is not
used
in the
satisfactory for
alkaline to turmeric.
Turmeric defecation
time
by the
disturbing influence of carbonic and potassium. Normal of sodium
the carbonates
sulphitesare
one
is made
of the
account
on
at
was
paper
process
for
is ver^ useful in the control
paper
The
process.
is turned
paper
a
of the
ordinary
reddish
brown
by lime and this color may easilybe seen by artificial light. Cane-juice that has very slightturmeric alkalinityin the cold neutral on heating, due to the combination usually becomes of the lime
with
the organic acids at the
higher temperature. Solution." Phenolphthalein Dissolve 1 gram of phenolphthalein in 100 cc. of diluted alcohol and neutralize 288.
it with
acid
defecation
or
alkali
as
may
be
necessary.
For
use
in the
cane-juice,especiallyin raw-sugar work, the solution prepared as above is too sensitive. For this purpose of
it should
sensitiveness
be
acidulated litmus
until
it has
about
the
same
good paper. 284. Phenolpbthalein or Dupont. This Paper." by soaking the very finest qualityof filter-or paper is made as
a
CORALLIN
glazed
in
paper
ROSALIC
OR
alcoholic
an
the
Dupont
solution
sensitiveness
413
SOLUTION.
ACID
of
phenolphthalein.
of the
regulated by adding paper dilute sulphuric acid to the alcoholic solution and made the sensitiveness correspond to different proportions of lime or is much used in the other alkalinityof juices. This paper control of sulphitationprocesses. 2S5.
Corallin
Rosalie
or
Acid
Soltttioii.~Dige8t-
gether equal quantitiesof carbolic,sulphuric, and oxalic acid totime at 150*^ C; dilute the mixture for some with
water,
mixture
the
evaporate matter
calcium
dryness;
to
and
alcohol
with
with
free acid
the
saturate
carbonate the
extract
neutralize
nearly
and
coloring-
the
solution
corallin in 90 (Sutton). A solution of commercial per be used. cent alcohol,nearly neutralized, may For determining the alkalinityor acidityof molasses (137) the
corallin used
alcohol-soluble
as
stain in
a
microscopy
i3
recojimended. 3S6"
with
cochineal
neutralize
287.
the
50
^Extract
"
of strong
cc.
3
day
a
of
grams
alcohol
agitation,for
occasional
water, with and
Solution.
Cochineal
and
ized pulver-
200
Filter
two.
or
of
cc.
the extract. Solution.
Plienacetolin
resident in 1000
cc.
Dissolve
"
of strong alcohol
and
2
of
grams
neutralize
the
solution. S88* 100
cc.
Paper.
lodate
with
of water
heating and
potassium, dissolved in this solution and dry it. This in
even
blue
is used
paper
Dissolve
"
in
5
cc.
2
add
grams 0.2
of water.
gram
Soak
of
starch
in
of iodate
of
in filter-paper
testing for sulphurous acid, which,
slight traces, frees the iodine
and
colors the paper
through the reaction with the starch.
289.
Nessler's
iodide in 250
Solution. cc.
of water.
"
^Dissolve 62.5 grams Set aside about 10
of potassium cc.
of this
larger portion a solution of mercuric formed chloride until the precipitate no longer redissolves. Add the 10 cc. of potassium iodide solution; then continue
solution; add
the addition
to
the
of mercuric
chloride very
cautiouslyuntil only
a
Dissolve 150 grams of slight permanent precipitateforms. caustic potash in 150 cc. water, cool and add it gradually to
the above
solution,
Dilute the mixture
to I liter.
414
SPECIAL
Subaeetate
290.
REAGENTS.
of
IjesLd.""oncenirated
Heat, nearly to boiling,for about neutral
lead
water.
Add
water
Cool,
ti"Hi.
Solution.
*!f".
of
grams
for the loss
to compensate
decant be
may
hour, 860 grams Utharge, and 500 cc.
of
an
by
of
evapora-
the clear solution.
preapred without
heat, provided
is set aside several
the mixture LUiUe
260
settle,and
solution
This
100^
acetate,
half
Sdutian,"
hours, with frequent shaking. Proceed described as above, except use The solution should be diluted with cold,
"
of water.
recentlyboiled,distilled water to 54.3^ Brix. Z9U of Bone-black for Decolorizing Preparation ^Powder bone-black Solutions* and digest it several hours with hot hydrochloric or nitric acid to dissolve the mineral
|
"
Decant
matter.
until the
Avater
add
the
washings
Dry the powdered
red.
C. and
loO"
a
saturated little
ammonia
alum
additional
The
paper.
the
When
^This
"
of
of
to render
sulphatesmay
should
also
quently fre-
water
add
in
remain
in solution to
precipitate
wished, the hydrate
by decantation with of sulphates. of Pure Sugar," The for
purifying sugar,
appointed with
analysis used solution
not
be washed
adopted by the Fourth Chemistry, Paris, 1900,
and
1
is
in
in
International
precipitatethe
following testingpolariscopes, Congress of Applied of
the
of unifying the methods countries: Prepare a hot
view
to
various
purest sugar
until
wat^
reconunendation
the
on a
of the
in
use
commercial
with
absolute
sugar
able, obtain-
ethel
alcohol.
laboratory centrifugal Redissolve and reprecipitatethe and wash it with alcohol. as before, washing it in the centrifugalwith alcohol. sugar be dried between should obtained The so pieces of sugar blotting-paperand preserved in a stoppered jar. The moia* Spin
the
precipitated sugar
in
the
{
at about
slightexcess, then enough the solution slightlyacid to litmus
was
saturated
bath,
reagent alum
conmion
by little until
only traces Preparation
committee
air
paper
cream.''
solution
it contains
method
an
litmus
blue
tightlystoppered jar.
a
precipitationof the lead is
of alumina
sugar
in
with
of lead.
excess
293.
bone-blaick
the
longer turn
no
of Alumina.
called ''alumina To
wash
bone-black
it in
preserve
Hydrate
202.
and
|
INVERT-SUGAR
OF
PREPARATION
ture
in the sugar
made
for it when
should
415
SOLUTION.
and
be detennined
weighing the sample
allowance
proper
analysis
for
for sugar of the followingmethod Wiley recommends beet or unknown origin: Dissolve 70 parts of high grade sugar the sugar from this solution in 30 parts of water, then precipitate of 90 per cent alcohol. at 60** C. with an equal volume and wash Decant the supernatant liquid,while still warm, H. W.
the
sugar
beet
sugar
Finally
alcohol. strong, warm in contain, is removed
with
may wash
alcohel
the
with absolute sugar acid in a desiccator.
alcohol
the
sulphuric
over
rafiinose,which
The
solution.
dry it
and
writer
of drying to that of the prefersWiley'smethod International Congress, as, in the latter,fibers of paper may The
adhere
to the
product. Preparation
294.
Dissolve
2.375
it to
dilute
100
fifteen hours After
sucrose.
10
at
the
it with
cubic
centimeters
1000
cc.
solution
1.188
night
over
to invert
solution
the
with
or
the
water
hydrate solution,
dilute sodium
to
of this
stand
temperature
room
very
complete the volume
and
mixture
"
and
water
hydrochloricacid, of
cc.
inversion, dilute
nearly neutralize
in
sucrose
pure
let the
specificgravity and about
of
grams Add cc.
Solution,*
Invert-sugar
of
with
Twenty
water.
contain
0.05
formula
for
gram
of
invert-sugar.
Feliling*s Solution."
295.
solution
is
as
The
34.64
grams
of pure
crystalline copper
150.00
grams
neutral
potassium
Dissolve
Fehling's
follows:
the
copper
dissolve the neutral
sulphate in
potassictartrate
sulphate;
tartrate.
160
cc.
in 600
distilled water;
to 700
cc.
caustic-
solution,specificgravity 1.12, equivalent to approximately a 14-per cent solution,by volume; add the copper solution to the alkali, stirringthoroughly after each addition,
soda
and
dilute to
1000
cc.
to strong Fehling solution decomposes readilyon exposure light. The author prefersViolette's solution for commercial method. work by a volumetric
-
Zeit. Angew.
Chem.,
1892, 333.
416
REAGENTS.
SPECIAL
VIolette's
296.
This
Solution."
solution
should
be
prepared in small quantities at a time, since it is liable to in the cold, on deposit oxide of copper, even long exposure this solution proceed as follows: to light. To prepare 34.64
chemically pure crystallized sulphate of chemically pure tartrate of soda and
grams
187,00
grams
copper;
potash
(Rochelle salt); caustic soda.
chemically pure
78.00 grams
sulphate, accurately weighed, in 140 and add it slowly to the solution of Rochelle water salt cc. and caustic soda, taking care to thoroughly stir the solution Dissolve
the
copper
after each addition. The
sulphate
copper
the solution to
Dilute
should
be
liter.
one
carefullyexamined
for
been impurities. Considerable quantities of iron have found of the most in copper sulphate from one reputable manufacturers. If the salt is impure it must be dissolved be finely and recrystallizedrepeatedly. The crystalsmust before weighing. filter-papers powdered and dried between If it is desirable to make up a large quantity of Fehling's all risk of depositionof the copper oxide or Violette's solution, in the cold may be avoided by making a separate solution of the
liter;dissolve the copper
one
liter.
Use
10
of water,
of each
cc. as
usual
of the
and
and
to
dilute it to
exactly one the
omit
tion addi-
Violette's solution.
with
invert-sugar (S94) under The
analyticalmethod.
the Violette's solution
it up
make
of the solutions
this reagent with
Check
the alkali and
sulphate. Dissolve
copjjer
should
be reduced
in
copper
by
the
0.05
10
ditions con-
of
cc.
invert-
gram
sugar.
Soxhlet's
297. solutions
are
(A) 34.639 and
Solution.
employed, prepared
diluted to 500
(B) 173 dissolved
is
copper
as
method
two
follows:
sulphate dissolved
in water
cc.
grams
tartrate
in water
and
containing volume
of
grams
Soxhlet's
In
"
516
completed
of soda
mixed
grams to 500
with caustic
cc.
potash (Rochelle salt)
and 100
cc.
soda
caustic soda per
Chemically
liter and
pure
tion soluthe
salts should
be used. 29S.
Soldaini's
Solution."
Dissolve
4Q
grams
of
NORMAL
sulphate of
ACID
and
copper
separatelyin water; on
filter and
a
to
or
boil
the
2000
cc.
heat
Acid ^
and
'^Normal
contains
normal N 2 as
one-fifth
has
Acid
of this
to
normal
49.043
are
so
pared pre-
solutions.
HjSO^
grams HCl
grams
and
are
Normal,
per
liter,
per
normal
one-tenth
frequentlyused,
prepared
half-normal
usually indicated*
are
"
etc.
"
,
,
5
as
solutions
These
hence
contain
solution.
than
prepared and
are
10
in the
following sections.
HydroQjiloric
specificgravity contains
rather
sure to in-
ing Accord-
"
rule,
a
normal, and
the
36.458
attempt
--*
The
reagent
1.20, approximately.
40.78
per
100
grams
cent
of
of
chloric hydro-
it
are
quired re-
form
a
to necessary to dilute a somewhat
grams
It is advisable
to
Acid.
of
little less than
a
quantity of the acid, e.g., 80 water,
anunonia
N
N
described
acid,
Soldaini's
with
hydrogen equiviUent. in grams (H ="/)." Thus
usually a specificgravity
acid
be approximately
the
solutions, etc.,
Standard
300.
When
ceases.
Solutions.
acid, 36.458 hydrocHloric
(decinormal) solutions are by diluting the normal
checked
add
solutions, as
sulphuric acid
",
a
cc.
plate several
hot
treated
Alkali
weighed
N,
in all 1400
they contain
case
reagent
one-fifth
be
to
liter shall contain
one
active
follows:
long approximately a
this substance.
Half-normal,
etc.
or
cipitate pre-
given off, filter the solution and minutes^ then cool and dilute it to
be boiled in
Sutton
liter; normal
the
reflux condenser;
a
of carbonic
Solutions
from
that
precipitate
is
few
a
Normal
normal
the
specificgravity of the solution should
should
the
a
acid
freedom
of
on
of sodium
Transfer
water.
water-bath
carbonic
1.185.
to
cold
evolution
The
29a.
solutions,collect
until the
filtrate
reagent
the
for this purpose. Add of bicarbonate of potassium, and
more
no
of carbonate
grams
answer
distilled water;
417
SOLUTIONS.
40
it with
wash
will
grams
hours
mix
ALKALI
largeflask fitted with
a
glass tube 416
AND
cc.
to
to
1000
cc,
with
lai^ger distilled
closely approximate
the
alkali quantity. Titrate this solution with a noimal Solution (304)fmeasuring the acid from a burette into 10 cc. other suitable indi* or of the alkali solution, using cochineal correct
cator.
The
preliminarytitration should, 1
Volumetric
Analysis.
most
conveniently,
418
SPECIAL
show 9.6
be added
checked
further
the
alkali
determination.
chlorine
of water
other.
The
strength, and should
and
add
with
ease
(Mie
should tent. con-
preparing
in
use
solutions, since and
acid
17.725
is
its
hy
accuracy
half-nonnal
contain
make
to
solution
for
cc.
add
of its chlorine
one
The
10
of the
cc.
determination
ascertained
be
to
oc.
convenient
a
suppose
neutralize
9.6X100=960
=40
cc.
a
standard
accurate
strength may a
is
add
This
by
required
to
exactly neutralize
solution
very
--960
1000
strong; for example,
are
alkali solution, then
of the must
be too
to
solution
acid
of the
cc.
be
solution
the add
REAGENTS.
venient con-
a
of chlorine
grams
liter.
per
1
normal
cc.
hydrochloricacid
.036458
=
=
=
Standard
301.
normal
of the
oxalic acid
Oxalic
solutions
.03545
''
a
.02804
"
CaO
This
is
and
prepare,
it may
all the
preparation of
the
to
obtained
be
can
Acid."
HCl
gram
when
be
standard
the
strictly pure
used
alkali
simplest
in
and
checking
acid
solu-
oxalic
add,
tions.
Repeatedly crystallizethe from
solution.
water
of
indications
at
normal
solution,
the
weaker
solutions than This
exposed cc.
303. 28
cool
cc.
the
titration
the
to
normal
direct
of
solution, and normal
Dissolve dilute
and
63.034 1000
to
the
is
to
the
latter
from
the
show of
prepare
powdered
advisable
the
grams
cc,
45.018
use
It
add
grams
in pre-
to
employ
normal
mal nor-
tion solu-
keeps well, provided it is
sunlight. =
.06303
sulphuric dilute alkali.
to
HjC20^.2HjO.
gram
Acid."
Sulphuric
concentrated
with
Reject all crystals that
prepared
oxalic acid
Standard
in
normal, usually the one-tenth
be
should
required, since
as
1
weight solution.
normal
paring
acid.
and
crystals thoroughly
preferably,dry
or,
100" C. t.o constant
not
the
efflorescence.
in distilled water
this acid the
Dry
ordinary temperatures.
air at
obtainable
purest
add
1000
Add to cc.
approximately distilled Standardize
water,
by
'
420
REAGENTS.
SPECIAL
""
Phenolphthalein
be
cannot
used
as
with
indicator
an
ammonia.
Decinormal
305.
Dissolve
3.16
decinormal acid
soon
The
60*^
approximately
addition
acquires
and
little
a
must
be
time
of
cc.
approximately little
by
pennangana^e
pink
as
color.
rose
or
maintained
at
allowed
be
must
in
tightly
a
time
time.
to in
change from
the
time
bottle,
stoppered
to
solution.
time,
It rather
should
and
formation
The
for
of is
decinormal
cc.
of
permanganate
Determinations. 1
a
Solution "
is
cc.
grams and
dilute
^This
solution
equivalent of to
reducing-^ugar
composition.
1
"
J
Permanganate
306.
water
from
indicates
determine
to
to
attempt
potash
4.9763
preserved
checked
precipitate
a
simpler
than
be
be
a
factor
a
maintain
the
strictly decinormal.
solution
that
should
solution
potassium
of
Permanganate
by
the
faint
solution
the
C,
a
few
a
to
oxalic
solution of.
with
titration
reaction.
the
1
the
of
temperature
solution
the
1000
to
decinonnal and
water
permanganate
solution
the
as
of
dilute
by
of
cc.
the
Discontinue
little.
10
Warm
add
and
To
volumes add.
sulphuric C,
C0"
acid.
several
checked
"
permanganate
and
water,
conveniently
Potassium.
dry
pure,
distilled
in
is
oxalic
add
dilute
chemically
(KMnOf)
solution
This
cc.
of
grams
potassium
of
of
PermanKanate
to
.01
1000
cc.
This
determination
be of
of
in
Cu
such
strength Dissolve
copper.
potassium
solution
"
Beducing-susar
should gram
KMnOi
gram
00636
".
for
of
permanganate
.0316
shoidd
material
in
distilled
be of
checked known
REFERENCE
TABLES
FOR
SUGAR
USE
LABORATORIEa
IN
TABLES.
REFERENCE SHOWING
TABLE
307.
REAGENTS;
COMMERCIAL
SOLUTIONS,
ETC..
Acid Sulphuric (Oil of Vitriol).
ALSO.
HjSO*.
Impurities.
Pb,
PRESENT
THE IN
RECOMMENDED
Symbol.
Name.
IMPURITIES
THE
IN
STRENGTH
OF
ANALYSIS.
Stbxmoth
Solution,
op
btc.
and Concentrated dilute. As, Fe, Ca, 1 part To dilute acid N,04. pour 9 into by measure parts
HNO"
distilled
Use
water.
celain por-
dish. Acid.
Nitric
flNO,.
HCl.
H,S04,
Concentrate to
Hydrochli)ric
HCl.
CI, FejCU,
HaS04,
Acid
JMuriaticAcid).
SOa,
Dilute
Nitro-hydroctiloric
(Aqua
by
Acid.
add
1
=
dilate.
1 part
9 parts water. Concentrated
parts
As.
and
dilute
To
and
acid
dilute.
acid
part
9
to
water.
Prepare adding
regia.)
when 4
1
to
aQid.
required chloric hydronitric part
parts
Use
conceutritted
acids. Acetic
Acid.
H4C'j|Oj.
H,S04,
Cu/Pb,
HCl, Fe, Ca.
Concentrated Dilute
1
=
acetic
dilute.
and part acid
cial gla-
pui-e 1
to
part
water.
Sulphurous
HjSOi.
charcoal,
To add
Acid.
in
Boil,
wash
erated
Ha804.
the
gas
gren-
it by passing water, and finally
through
into
it
pass water.
flask,
a
concentrated
in
cold
very
Preserve
the
lution so-
tightly -stoppered
bottles. Oxalic
Acid.
HfCgO^
Fe, K, Na, Ca.
Dissolve
1
of
part
acid
in
9
parts
crystallized tilled dis-
water.
Snlphui'etted
Use
HoO. in
Hydrogen.
the
Hydrate
Sodic
KHO.
Potassic
or
NaHO,
in
and chlorides.
drate. Hy-
NH4HO.
Sulphate,
the in
(Soda and for
Ammonic
ride, chlo-
ate, carbon-
tariy
or
Wash
gas.
Al, SiOa, phosphates, Dissolve phates, or sulpotash
Hydrate.
state
gaseous solution.
water
is
will most
stick 30
soda
parts
less
ter. wa-
sive, expen-
usually purposes
swer an-
in
place of potash.) water Stronger of monia am(.96 specific gravity) and i above strength.
matters.
Baric
Hydrate.
BaOsHj.
Dissolve
crystals in filter, and stoppered
1 20
part pnrts
preserve bottle
422
of
the
water
;
in
RBAGENT3
AND
STRENGTH
RE^QENTS. Nams.
Stmbol.
"
OF
Conf
423
SOLUTIONS.
t ntied.
Strength
iMrURITIBS.
Solutioh,
of
KTC.
Calcic Hydi"te.
Sodic
Aramo-
OaOgH,.
Slake lime in water, filter off the solution, and preserve out of coothe air. tact with the Dry and powder It may salt. be made as follows: Dissolve 7 parts
Na(NH4)HP04.
nic
Hydric Phosphate. (Mici'ocoHQiic Salt.)
disodic hydric phosphate
(NaaHP04) ammonic
and 1 chloride
part 2
m
ter, filwater, and separate the quired resalt by crystallization.
parts
boiling
Purify by Sodic
Biborate.
recrys-
tallization. Heat to expel water of crystallization and
NaaB40v.
powder. Sodic Carbonate.
NaaC0|.
Chlorides,
phosphates,
sulphates,
or
Use the powdered salt dissolve in 5 parts
water.
silicates.
Aramonic
Sul*
Dissolve
(NH4)aS04.
1
part
in
5
Dissolve 1 Purify the commercial parts water.
part
in
6
phate.
parts water. (N 1X4)01.
Amnionic
Chloride.
Fe.
dition adof ammonia: filter. Neutralize trate filwith HCl ;
salt
by the
concentrate
and
recrystalllze. Aramonic
Saturated
(NH4)N0,.
solution.
Nitrate. Ammonic Oxalate.
(NH4)aCa04.
Ammonic Carbonate.
(NH4)aC0,.
Purify by recry stallizition.
Pb, Fe,
sulphates, chlorides.
Dissolve
parts
1 part
in
20
water.
1 part in 4 Dissolve 1 add parts water, and specific part ammonia, .880. Dissolve the
gravity Ammonic
mo-
lybdate.
salt
in
decant ammonia, the clear solution slowlv into nitric acid, stroDg
strong
stirring thoroughly till redisthe precipitate Ammonic
Yellow Ammonic
Potassic Potc"slc Iodide.
phide. sul-
solves. Saturate 8 parts with HaS, add 2 parts ammonia.
(NH4),8.
Prepared by dissolving phide. sulsulphur in ammonic
(NH4)aSj phide. Sul-
Dissolve
phate.KaS04. Sul-
KI.
monia am-
then
1
part
in
10
1
part
in
60
parts water. lodate,
Dissolve bonate. parts water. car-
424
KEAGENTS
AND
CoA^^ntied.
REAGENTS."
Symbol.
Name.
IMPUIUTIES.
Stbbnoth
Dissolve
Bi-
chromate.
Potassic
Ferri-
Dissolve
10
1
part
in
10
1
part
in Better when
to
solution
prepare Potassic
in
water.
parts
cyanide.
part
water.
p^rts
K"Fe,Cyja.
1
water.
parts
Chroiiiate.
btc.
Solution,
of
Dissolve
Sulphates.
Potnssic
PotAssic
SOLUTIONS,
OF
STRENGTH
12 quired. re-
in 13 1 part Dissolve glucose parts water, or, for work, 1 part in 50
K4FeCy6.
.
Ferrocyaaide.
parts water. Chloride.
Baric
BaCl,.
Di. solve commercial parts water. salt bv passinfr HaS through it
Purify
the
1
part
in
10
1
part
in
15
and
crystallizing. Baric
Nitrate.
Dissolve
Ba(NO,),.
water.
parts Baric
Add
BaCOs.
Carbonate.
Calcic Chloride
CaClf.
Calcic
CaSO*.
Fe.
Ferrous
MgSO*.
Chloride
Dissolve water.
serve pre-
tle. bot-
1 part in 5 parts
water.
parts
Dissolve parts cold
FeSO^.
Sulphate. Ferric
dered pow-
of the much as Dissolve salt as possible in water (in the cold), filter, and the filtrate. preserve 1 Dissolve part in 10
Sulphate. Magnesic Sulphate.
the
to
water
and carbonate in salt-mouthed
FeaClft.
1
in
10
part
in
10
part
in
10
part
water.
1 Dissolve water. 1 Dissolve parts water.
parts Cobaltous Nitrate.
'
Cupric Sulphate.
CO(NOa)a.
Fe, Ni, etc.
CuSO*.
Fe, Zn.
For
by *'
work
sugar
C.
For page work
purity
tions. crystalliza-
repeated
the so-called Even ways alsalts p." cannot be depended upon. see Fehling solution 415. For ordinary I part in 10 dissolve
parts water. Mercuric
HgCl,.
Mercurous Nitrate.
Dissolve
parts
Chloride.
HK,(NOa)a.
1
part
in
90
water.
1 Dissolve part in 20 water acidulated 1.2 part with nitric acid. into a bottle Filter taining conlittle metallic a
parts
mercury.
ATOMIC
WEIGHTS"WEIGHTS
AND
REAGENTS."
308.
INTERNATIONAL
Conetnu"d.
ATOMIC
WEIGHTS
FOR
Journal
iFrom
of the American 0-16
Aluminum.
..
Antimony..
.
Cadmium Calcium
Cu F Au H I Fe
Pb
206.9
205.35
Ca C
Carbon
Chlorine Chromium. Cobalt
..
a Cr
Co
Copper Fluorine Gold
Hydrogen... Iodine
Iron Lead.
TABLES
309.
Chemical
120.2 75.0 137.4 208.5 11.0 79.96 112.4 40. 1 12.00 35.45 52.1 59.0 63 6 19 197.2 1.008 126.97 55.9
As Ba Bi B Br Cd
Arsenic Barium Bismuth Boron Bromine
H
2t.l
.
OF
0-16.
Magnesium. Manganese Mercury Molybdenum.
Avoirdupois
Meter U. S. mile Kilometer 1 Acre 1 Hectare 1 U. S. liquid 1 U.
1
From
Tables
107.93
Tin
Na Sr S Sn
Unmium Zinc
U Zn
23.05 87.6 32.06 119.0 238.5
Strontium
Sulphur.
OF WEIGHTS
THE AND
.
H-1. 24 18 54.6 198.5 95.3 58.3 .
13.93 16.88 30.77 19".3 38.85 223.3 78.6 28.2 107. 11 22.88
86.94 31.82 118.1 236.7 64.9
65.4
UNITED
No.l.)
STATES
MEASURES.*
EQUIVALENTS.
"=
"="
"
lbs.) lbs.)
...
Sodium
"
av.
..
Radium Selenium Silicon SUver
-=
av.
Hg .Mo
Platinum
"
ounce
Mn
Potassium.
"*
S. apothecaries'dram S. dry quart S. bushel
"
Ag
.
....
Phosphorus.
EQUIVALENTS
pound
1 U. 1 U. (2240 1 Long ton ton (2000 1 Short 1 Metric ton
Ni N O P Pt K Ra Se Si
.
Nitrogen Oxygen
.
Mg
24 36 55.0 200.0 96.0 58.7 14.04 16.00 31.0 194.8 39.15 225 79.2 28.4
.
Nickel
MlSCELLANSOUB 1 1 1 1
LIST)
Society, Vol. XXVII,
=
METRIC
CUSTOMARY_AND
(PARTIAL
1905.
l. 26.9 119.3 74.4 136.4 206.9 10.9 79.36 111.6 39.7 11.91 35. 18 51.7 58.55 63 1 18.9 195.7 1.000 126.01 55.5
Al Sb
425
MEASURES.
453 39
5024277 grams. 37 inches (U. S. law 1 60935 kilometers. U. S. mile. 0. 62137 0. 4047 hectare. ,
2. 471
29, 574
of 1866).
acres.
cubic
centimeters.
3. 6967 cubic centimeters. " 1 1012 liters. 0. 35239 hectoliters. i"1016. 05 kilograms. = 907 18 kilograms. =2204. 62 avoirdupois pounds. "^
ot Equivalents," 4th Ed., U. S. Bureau
of Standards.
426
3
:?; m " " p "y
Est
o QQ
TABLES
OF
EQUIVALENTS.
428
MENSXTRATION.
MENSURATION.
310.
Parallelogram: area
Area
tude; paraUelogram" base X altiproduct of two adjacent sides
of
of rhombus
any =
them. angle included between of perpendicular let Area (diagonalX sum TrapeBium: it from of the two fall on opposite angles)-5-2= Area trianglesinto which it*may be divided. half the two Area of the Trapezoid: parallel sum them. sides X the perpendicular distance between Divide the quadrilateralinto two Any Quadrilateral: of the areas of these, or area trianglesand find the sum of
Xsine
=
"
=half
diagonalsX the sine of the
the product of the two
angle at their intersection. base X half the Area Triangle:
altitude
=
sides X the
half the
=
included
sine of the
uct prod-
angle half each side severally; the sum of the three sides minus and the three remainders together multiply this half sum 'and extract the square Area of an root of the product. equilateraltriangle one fourth the square of one of its of two
==
=
sides X0.433013.
Hypothenuse and being .given to find V
side of
one
the
right-angled triangle side: Required side== a
other
given side'; if the Hypothenuse* side hypothenuse XO.7071 "
two
sides
area
-^
are
equal,
=
.
Area
given to find base:
Base
=2
X
perpendicular
height. Area Two
both
to find
base. height: Height 2 Xarea-^ sides and base given to find perpendicular height,
given
angles at base
difference
of
the
made
base
this difference
=
are
sides
the
by added
acute: :
or
of the sides
: sum
difference
drawing to
Base
of
the
the
divisions
::
of
perpendicufar. Half
subtracted
from
give the divisions of it. of Area Polygon: irregular polygon; dividing the polygon into trianglesand
half the base
will
the
diagonals
find the
sum
of
of these.
areas
Area
draw
of
regularpolygon: Area distance
of
side
to
=
(length of
center
X number
a
side X pendicular perof sides)
429
MENSURA.TION.
-r-2"half to
of side
perimeter X perpendiculardistance
the
center.
Perpendicular to
center
half
=
of
side X cotangent
one
angle subtended by half the side. method): (Laboratory Irreg^ular Figure of the
figure
on
weight of this piece with
the
compare
thickness
uniform
of
paper
the paper of known area. circumference Ratio of Circle:
Draw
and that
diameter
.to
Length of ::
diameter
=
360
arc:
an
length of the of
Area
is
usually
number
:
of
degrees of the
arc
:
arc.
circle
a
3. 1415929
eter length of the arc, or diamof degrees in the arc X 0.0087266
of the circle X number =
of
Xx.
of the circle
circumference
sheet
a
=*
number 3.1416). This as (usually taken representedby the Greek letter pi, x. Circumference
it out;
cut
of
the
of the
square
=
radius Xir="' square
of
diameterXO.7854. of circles
Areas
to each
are
other
the squares
as
of their
diameters.
Ellipse
Area
:
product
=
semi-axes
of the
X3.1416
=
product
of the axesXO.7864. Prism:
Area
two
(perimeterof baseXaltitude)+areasof
=
ends.
Volume
of base X altitude.
area
=
Convex
Pyramid:
surface
Volume of
Area slant =
frustum
a
height X of
areas
them
between
X
one
proportionalbetween product). Rectangular which sides Volume
two
Prismoid bases
parallel,and =
(sum
height.
regular pyramid perimeters of the
of the two
area
two
a
regular pjrramid^
a
third of altitude.
one
the
frustum
a
the
of
of
of
sum
surface) +
convex
Volume of
of base X
area
=
of
X half the slant
perimeter of base
(
the
of
bases
two
of
numbers
(a soUd
the bases
two
bases.
regular pyramids
a
and
third
Half
=
a
mean
the =
sum
proportional
altitude. square
=
root
(Mean^ of their
bounded
by six planes,of are rectangles,having corresponding the four upright sides are trapezoids):
of the
areas
of the bases -|four
times
the
430
MENSURATION.
of
area
parallelsection
a
the
equidistantfrom
bases)
sixth of the altitude.
Xone
circumference of convex Area surface Cylinder: base X altitude. Convex end surface + the two
of
=*
"
total
area.
Volume Cone:
of
cylinder
a
height (= Volume
area
of
Frustum
circumference
=
surface)+
convex a
cone
of
^
of frustum
a
a
of
cone
of the two
them
frustum
a
third of the
Xone
of
bases. bases -|-a
(area of two
=
of the
sum
tude. alti-
pyramid relative
a
to
proportional.)
mean
Parabola
Area
:
Sphere: circle
of
third of altitude.
(half the side X
bases)-h area
between proportional
(See Volume
=
slant
of the base.
area
Area
circumferences of the two Volume
base X half
of
of base Xone
area
cone:
a
of base X altitude.
area
=
Total
mean
areas
Surface =
X circumference
diameter
==
of
square
I altitude.
base X
^
diameter
X 3. 1416
=
its
of
convex
great
surface
of
the squares
of
its circumscribingcylinder. Surfaces
of
spheres are
to each
other
as
their diameters. Volume "cube
of
sphere surface X
a
=
one
third of the radius
of the diameter X 0.5236.
Volumes
of
spheres are
to each
other
as
the cubes of
their diameters. Cask:
Volume
of
a
cask in U. S.
gallons (39 X -
square
bung diameter +25 Xsqueu*e of head diameter + 26 product of the diameters) X length-:26,470. Molasses Tanks, Crystallizers: ^ee table 35%.
L
oi
X the
OF
EVAPORATION
311.
TABLE
SHOWING
THE
CONCENTRATING
OF
EVAPORATION JUICE
431
WATER.
TO
(Percentages by Weight.)
SIRUP.
WATER
IN
432
TABLE
OF
EVAPORATION
SHOWING CONCENTRATING
THE
EVAPORATION JUICE
TO
WATER.
OP
WATER
SIRUP."Continued.
IN
1 EVAPORATION
CO
OP
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to CO CO CO CO
cdof^t^h^tNiooododoo
o"OiOO"-4"-icsicieO"^
dcotot^Od
"-tcotoooococoo"coto
F*4
cdcdcdcdco
torototoodooooodoio^
oor4i-ie"coco"^tocc"
totoa""-4eo
tooOtHcocoo"t".^co
i-itoeoOMtotooacoo*
cOcdcot^^to
tot"Jxada6o"c"oioo
"-""-(
tOt-^COCOOO
rH
cototobJto
ooododaio"oiod"-^"-"
TfooOi-i^
to
o
"
OS OS OS O
00
1 M
-
O o
C4
H
^
CO
"-i
i^.co
o
oo to
r^
o"
QQ o
$
o
csicoco^ to
cooooa
bt
o
2
00 CO
'^ t^
O
"^ 00 W
CD w
to
'*|"^OJOOOOO^OOeo
C4cocQ"^iOtoa6oc""^
s "o 00
to
to to 00 00
"^ "
ei
to c^i 00 -^
"H
OJOOMO""**f-iOT*"Ti*eo
O
CO
CO -^ "0 to
i-H
rl
rH
rH
rH
i-H
O ^
rH
to
*-i
i-i
to to -^ CO 00
r-) i-t
CO
"-"
1-1 CJ
1^
1-4
i-l
OS
"Oto'o6pCS""*to.-IocO fH
f-4
K-l
^
d
d
C9 CO CO
^tot-^toos
coooco"todOOsosi-"
to 04 e" CO CO to to
OOXOSOftOS
0O"-i"-i0IC0^^t0to
00 p T-l d
C4 '"4(to *^ CO 04 94 d CO CO -^
04 to
to
1-(
f-l
1-1
r-l
i-H
1-1
^
iH
1-1
o
'"4"
OS
-^^ to
1-itOOdCOOO
COOStOOIOOOMCOCO
osoaosoo
i-i"-i04co"^to"ot"^odocsi^t"^i-i"d'^toco rH
1-4
1-4
o
th
04 CO ""}"to CO to
rH
*-4
1-1
rH
rH
tH
04
CO X
"H
04 04 04 CO CO ^
f-4
CO
lO to
h tocotoxok
'3^
CO
OSOSOO"H"-icicO"^^
^1-1
Ho
t-i
-^WNtoCSOO^CSOOS
1-1
0.0.2
to 04
OSf-i"^t*iH
CI
o CO
Ci "* N d
loOOQO"OS
^^^^^^rHi-l
CO
X
GO a"
Q4-ie^
^^^^s^ss^l^g
COWDENBBR-WATBR.
CON
u
DGNBER-W
ATBtt.
439
CONDBNBBR-WATBB.
CO b. lO U3
CD CO "o "o t" "^ t^ r""
oc9iot*"oeocoa)eqt" "D "e" "D
to
oo
C4
ob0"
1^^
00 r"" K3 to t^
64004000
0" O
d
OOQOCOO
OH
Tfi
04 CO
C4t"ocoa"t^cocDoocoo
t^""^r* t"^00
00
^0
ach""oeo"oa"cot"e'"t""
d cc"r^t"r"r"aoo6d d
Cli-iObC4CO
a"oidd"-HC4co^coa6
S
0^-""ao
0""o"DO"cOf-"e9i-i
O.-4i-4C""C0^C000OC0 rHl-if^fHf^f^^Hf-^Pie4
Oeocoaa'^ooc4a0'4"o
x"ot^a"'"4ies'^eoi-iio
"do
""r"""tN.aoaoaba"0'H
"-ic"4eQ-4"coaoocot".c4
o^
1-tf^
"DO^00C000^OXt""
OH
iM
"-4
i-i
^
*H
^
04 es CO
i-tVi4i-"*^
co*cdodddt^c4 i-H
1-1
tH
^
i-H
0-" C9 C"l CO ^ lO
^OOCOOO^oNOitvOOO
iQ CO iQ iO CO r^ o" ^
Qdo6da"d"Hi-ie"icod
doddcotrctd^
eoa)^"-4a)aooo"-4io^
iCkQ^XOcO
o"dd^oHc^codcooo
ocor^NoH-^
KdoHObooo'HO^r^r'
"oo""-"ao
do-ii-Hcicoddoodco
r^eslr-i-^
*^
1-4
rH
i"N
f^
"-i
C4 CI
O05a6cvit"iooot^"i-i C4'C4 ,_i
^
..^
^
r^
"
C4C0^^
^o
d d d odd ^
"
*
94CO^*0
rHT-4e4C4
i-lfiH"-4v-ti^rH
^H
^"o
XO^"4tC^C4cOt""C4
i"oda6ooddd'-4"-iM'
rH
C0"DC"O
^
CO tr CO o* gs) CO
i-id ^u5
o
o
go
itOOkOQ
o
"2
""
*"'
iCOl
S.2oSa,|i (8 " .55
SOS'S: .2
o
wo
:r.9" 9i
(X /-"""
3
3
"
oJja
"'goo
0)
_
w
""*
Oi-tc^co"^"o"h"goo" COCQCOCOCOCOCOCQCOCO
g$ "B
d
O'-iCIC0^"0"t^000J
6
^
M
4J
M
O'-iNCO'*
lOiOiOiOtO
440
REDUCTION
TABLE
314.
FOR
VOLUME TO
A
OF SIRUP
Initial
SIRUP
A
OF
A
64.3"" BRIX
OF
OF
REDUCTION
THE
30"
Equivalent Sirup of
Density.
Brix ao*" Baum6. 64 3*
3
^
U V
^
5
BRIX.
WEIGHT
THE BRIX
DEGREE
GIVEN OR
54.3"
TO
SIRUP
OF
BAUMfi.
Equivalent Sirup
Initial
of
or
Density.
2
OR
OR
BAUMfi
.""
5
Brix Baum6.
64.3"
80O
^
"8
or
"
O.O.S
64.46
64.61 64.83 65.01 66.19 65.88 65.74
65.93 66.11 66.80 66.48 66.67 66.85 67.03 67. 8*2 67.40 67.69 67 77 67.95
68.14 68.32 68.50 68.69 68.87 69.06 69.24 69.42 69.61 69.79 69.96 70.16 70..34 70.58 70.72 70.90 71.08 71.26 71.45 71.63
ET 69.19 69.88 69.58 69.77 59.96 60.16 60.36 60.56 60.75 60.94
89.0
61.14 61.38
40.0
.1 .8 .8 .4 .6
.6 .7 .8 .9
81.8 21.3 21.9 81.9 88.0 22.06 2S.1 82.2 82.8 22.3
.1
223 82.4
61.7-2
.2 .3
22.4 82 5
61.92
.4
82.5
62
.6 .6
82.6
61.53
12
62.31 62. .W
"
62.70 62.91
"
.8 .9
82.6
22.7 22.8 82.8
71.88 72.00 72.19 72.37 72.66 72.74 72.98 78.10
7S.89 73.47 73.66 78.84 74.02 74.21 74.40 74.58 74.76 74.94 76.13 75.81
69.18 69.38 69.58 69 78 69.93 70.14 70.34 70.64 70.74 7k).94 71.15 71.85 71.66 71.75 71.96 72.16 78.87 72.58 78.79 73.00
73.41 73.61 73.81 74.01 74.82 74.43 74.64 74.86 75.06
.1
82.9
61
.2
23
63 70 63 90 64.10 61.30 64.49
.3 .4 .6 .6
230
.7 .8 .9
23.85 28.3 23.4
75.50 75.68 76.87 76.06 76.24 76.42 76.60 76.78 76.97 77.16
23.4 23.6 23.5 23.6 23.6 23..7 83. .7 23.8 28.8 23.9
77.84 77.62 77.70 77.80 78.06 78.26 78.44 78.62 78.81 79.00
63.11 63 31 63
64. G9
64.89 65.09 65.29 65.49 65
69
41.0
42.0 .1 .2 .3
65.90
.4
66.10 66. .30 66.50 6B.70 66 90
.5 .6 .7
.8 .9
82.9 0
23.1 23.1 23.2
67.10 67.80 67.51 67.71 67.91 68.12 68.82 68.58 68.79 68.98
73.21
REDUCTION
TABLE
FOR
OF
THE
REDUCTION OF
A
SIRUP,
SIRUP
OF
TO
THE
"4.3" WEIGHT
JETC"Continued,
BRIX.
OR
441 VOLUME
442 TABLE
REDUCrriON
FOR
THE
OF
REDUCTION OF
"
8IRUP,
TO
SIRUP
OF
THE
54.3" WEIGHT
ETC.-Co}""i"i4"d.
BRIX.
OR
VOLUME
444
AND
CONCENTRATION
FOR
FORMULA
DILUTION
(a) In percentages by weight of originalsolution: B" degree Brix after concentration; "-= initial degree Brix; cent water evaporated in terms of the weight of the x^per solution. original
^-XlOO.
X
(6) In percentage by volume of the origmalsolution: (?" specific gravityof the solution after concentration; gravity; specific ^^^initial B and h, as in formula (a): water cent evaporated in terms of the volume a;=per
of
solution. original
the
gb
x
=
100-10(";^. GB
(4)
To
F of
the volume
determine
a
sugar
solution before
concentration.
specificgravityof the solution degree Brix, and s=the before concentration;B =degree Brix, and iS" ^specificgravity 6=
after concentration
to
a
of 100.
volume
lOOSB ^^
y
"=a
"
'
Sb 316.
TABLE
SHOWINQ
A
OF
COMPARISON
THERMOMETRIC
SCALES.
(Schubaitirs Handbuch
der
techn.
Chem.
III. Aufl. I. 61.)
COMPARISON Kahren-
OF
SCALES.
THERMOMETRIC Centi-
grade.
lieit.
146 145 144 143
143 141
140 139
188 187 136 185 134 133 132 131 180 129 138 127 126 125
IfU 123 122 121 120 119 118 117 116 115 114 113 113 111 110 109
108 107 106 105 104 103 102 101
100 99
98 97 96 95 94 93 92 91 90 89 88 87 86 85 84
445
SCALES.
THEKMOMETRIC
28.33 27.78 27.22 26.67 26.11 25.55 25 24.44 23.89 23.33 22 78 22
22
21.67 21.11
20.55 20 19.44 18.89
J8.8" 17.78 17.22 16
67
16.11 15.55 15
14.44 13.89 18.33 12.78 12.23 11.67 11.11
10.55 10 9.H 8.89 8.33 7.78 7.22 6.67 6.11
i.55 I4.44 3.89 8.33 2.78 2.22 1.C7 1.11
0.55 0. -0.55 -1.11
-1.67 -2.22 -2.78 -3.38 -8.89 -4 44 -6 -5
55
22.67 22.22
21.78 21.83 20.89 20.44 20 19.56 19.11
18.67 18.22 17.78 17.38 16.89 16.44 16
15.56 15.11 14.67 14.22 13,78 13.83 12.89 12.41 12 11.56 11.11
10.67 10.22 978 9.33 8.89 8.44 8
7.56 7.11 6.67 6."
5.78 5.33 4.89 4.44 4
3.56 3.11
2.67 2.22
1.78 IM 0.89 0.44 0.
-0.44 -0.89 -1.33 -1.78 -2.22 -2
67
-8.11 -8.66 -4 -4.44
~Obn."n"ed.
446
SCALES.
THESMOMETRIC
TABLE
317.
SHOWING
A
COMPARISON
THERMOMETRIC
OF
SCALES.
FORMULiE
318.
OF
FOR
SCALE
THERMOMETRIC
ONE
OF
CONVERSION
THE
INTO
DEGREES
THE
THOSE
OF
ANOTHER.
C-8(2?'-32)-|/?. are algebraic.
if=-!C+32-ll?+32. Additions 319. HEATED
and
l2-|(F-32)-tCr.
subtractions
TEMPERATURES
APPROXIMATE UNTIL
IT
HAS
THE
OF FOLLOWING
IRON
WHEN COLORS:
MELTING-POINTS.
dIZO.
SHOWING
TABLE
EXPANSION
"
OP
MELTING-POINTS
THE
447
GLASS.
Olf
THE
METALS.
Meltingpoints " C.
Metal.
Aluminium .
657
Lead
630
827 ,
.
Arsenic
449.5
Magnesiuln. Mercury.
Bismuth Cobalt
269
Nickel
Antimony
Meltinepointa ^ C.
Mbtal.
...
633 .
-38.85
.
1435
Potassium.
1464
62.5 .
SST':::::: Iron, Iron, Steel
3"1.
1753 .
962
Sodium.
97.6 .
wrought,
GLASS
232
1373
Zinc
419
THE BT
Bailey's
OF
''
OF
ALTERATION
HEAT,
THE AS
TAKEN
BEING
COEFFICIENTS
.
Tin
VESSELS
(From
.
1600
SHOWING
TABLE
.
Silver
1060 1075-1276
cast
OF
332.
Platinum.
1084
Chemist's
EXPANSION
VOLUME
PER
Pocket-
15"
C.
Book.")
(CUBICAL)
DBORBB
AT
VOLUME
UNITY.
GLASS. EXPANBIOIV
THE
FROM"
OF
ORDINART
448
DENSITY
3J83.
DENSITY
(IN
OP
GRAMS
PER
TEMPERATURES
1
According
to
Reichsanstalt, 'From
Cireuiar
4,
M. No. No.
WATEB.
Wiss.
Thiesen, 1, 19,
0"
Abh.
der
TO
S.
Bureau
of
102"
WATER
C."
Physikalisch-Technischen
1904. U.
OF
MILLILITER)
FROM
Standards.
Al
WEIGHT
OF
1
CUBIC
FOOT
AND
1
449
GALLON.
FOOT 1 GALLON CUBIC AND (U. S. A. of P. densities the based WATER' water on des Poids Travauz International et Mesures, (Bureau Chappuis Thiesen 1907) for 0" to 40" C. arid of M. XIII; et M^moires. der Physikalisoh-Technisohen Reichsanstalt. 4, No. 1 : (Wis. Abh. The weights in air are for dry air at the 1904) for 41" to 100" C. the water 40" C. and to at a (corrected) as same up temperature
324.
WEIGHT
^31
cu.iN.)
OF
1
OF
of and of 760 mm. weights barometric against brass pressure of the air is 40" C. the temperature Above 8.4 density at 0" C. based The 20" C. v"4umetric are assumed computations to be 1 cubic that 1 liter si. (X)0027 relation decimeters, ard the on cubic inches. " 61. 023378 cubic decimeter
"16"(60"F.)
28258.580
tl6i[(62"F.)
28253.57
1
Calculated
1016.
62.2994 62.2884
by the U. S. Bureau
of
3777.623 3776.953
8.32820 8.32670
Standards, Washington, January,
450 WEIGHT
WEIGHT
OF
OF
1
CUBIC
1
CUBIC
FOOT
FOOT
AND
AND
1
1 GALLON.
GALLON."
Con"tntt"d.
i62
CAPACITIES
TRUE
SZQ.
TABLES
OF
CORRECTIONS
CAPACITIES
TRUE
WATER
IN
OF
FOR FLASKS
FROM
DETERMINING THE
THE WEIGHT
OF
AIR.i
data assumed are barometric pressure coefficient of expansion
(Following Observed cent;
FLABKS.
OF
ordinary conditions: approximating as relative =76 humidity =50 cm.; per of glass .'^0.000025 degree C.) per
of corrections give for eacfh nominal capacity and observed the amounts be added to to the apparent weight (in air contained by the flask to give the against brass weights) of the water Centimeters Cubic at 20" C. capacity in True Example: Apparent 22.3" =99.68; at adding correction weight of water 0.325=100.005, the actual capacity, The
tables
temperature
1
From
Circular
No.
19, U.
S. Bureau
of Standards,
April 1, 1914.
OF
CALIBRATION
327.
table
Circular
of Standards
Mohr's of
water
weight
weighed
as
graduated of
to
TABLE
grams.
the
check
SHOWING
weights
brass
cubic
This
table
calibrations
THE
330.
giren
MOHR'S
in
air at
the
be
is designed at
in
U.
S.
Bureau
occupied by
volume
17.5^
C.
used to
Solutions.
1
17.5** C. with
obviate
Frbutzel.)
gram
Flasks
the
normal
the
sity neces-
169.)
(See page
BOILING-POINTS
(Flourbno, SucBoss
Table
data
TO
19, April, 1914.)
should
centimeter
SOLUTIONS."
See
the No.
is the
unit
or
with
Mohr's
26.048
of "ftl""g
327a.
centimeter
cubic
from
calculated
been
has
FLASKS
CENTIMETERS.
CUBIC
(This
OF
CALIBRATION
THE
FOR
TABLE
'4K
FLASKS.
OF
SUGAR
454
EXPANSION
329.
SHOWING
TABLE
ON
AND
DISSOLVING OF
SUGAR
( From
**
Manuel
BOILING-POINTS
"
CONTRACTION
THE IN
CANE
CONTRACTION.
OP
ALSO,
WATER; SOLUTIONS
THE ON
Gallois
Agenda"
Cent
Sugar.
CODtracUoD.
Volume.
SUGAR
CONTRACTION INVERSION.
and
Dnpont.)
Specific Per
INVERT
Ome-Sogar
Gkatitt.
Invert-Sugar
Solution.
Solution.
0.00000
1 0000
1 0000
5
.99663
0.00137
Loan
10
.99744
0.00256
15
.99639 .9^46
0.00454
.99462
0.00538
1.0413 1.0630 1.0S"4 1.1066
1.Q206 U0418 1.0631 1.0656 1.1086
1.00000
0
20
330.
TABLE
0.00861
SHOWING
THE
SOLUTIONS.
BOILING-POINT "
(GsHiJkCH.)
OF
SUGAR
OF
SOLTTBILITY
d31.
TABLE
SHOWING
THE
SOLUTIONS
330.
TABLE
SHOWING WATER."
333.
TABLE
SHOWING
The or
SOLUBILITY
(After
OF
LIME
IN
SUGAR.
OF
SUGAR
fN
FXiOURENS.)
SOLUBILITY
OF
SUGAR
IN
(Hbrzfeld.)
of a small quantity of orgaolo by presence increased by a large quantity.
solubility is decreased
inorganic salts, but
THE
455
SUGAR.
SOLUBILITY OF
THE WATER.
AND
LIME
466
334.
SOLUBILITY
TABLE
OF
SHOWING
SUGAR
THE AT
SOLUBILITY
17.6'" C.
(Otto
OF
335.
TABLE
SHOWING SUGAR
SUGAR
IN
ALOOHOI
ScHRBnoLD.)
(Zeit. f. Rabenzucker-Ind.,
*
STBONTIA.
AND
44, 970.)
Calculated.
THE
SOLUBILITY
SOLUTIONS.
OF
(Sidersky.)
STRONTIA
IN
OF
SOLUBILITY
336.
TABLE
SHOWING
THE
SUGAR
(PsLLBT
337.
TABLE IN
(Jacx"B8THAl,
and
WATKR
Zeit.
La
THE
SHOWING IN
SOLUBIUTY
du
fabrication
OF
18,
640;
!" 186.)
sucre,
OF
PRESENCE
Rilbenzuckerind
CERTAIN
d'analyae
des
Matih'ea
SALTS
SUCROSE.
takjn
from
,
TraiU
IN
^
SOLUBILITY
THE
BARYTA
OF
SOLUTIONS.
SsNcnBR,
457
ETC.
BARYTA,
Suaiea,
p.
11
)
Sideraky^s
PROPERTIES
OP
1
THE
CAHBOHyDRATES,
-
!5 IIP
1-8 SI
i;^=
His
!i
t
"
I*
f
i
lip
i-i e
I
3
I
fit
pill fii,4
111 %l r-i'i
hill
iiiiii.
mm
3|J.
I :.S I;
II;
liii
J
OP
THE
CARBOHVDRATI
liillMi:! ""' fill l ! . 1 II
11^;
m
":
\i
I'i i
;
i
iiiiiMiiiilnt :
iu
m
ili.
i jiiiU'iiMi^
PROPEHTIES
OF
THE
CABBOHYDRATES.
llil
i .
"Ill Is ^i^i SaB!""!S=a:=K|
ill n "
ii|
.1 if if
lill I
i Mi
I
^
uiii
ilia
llllj^
I :,ii
111
mm
I
i iiin
'.mn
ill \\:
iln
I
M ;
-
Iml Jliiiiil
-1
mk
lit
"ill
iifU 1
J if
i
lilpilli .liiM ill ! iJiiiin i ;
hi:
11 I I
I I-
I !i:
k ll^^l Mil i
iiiiilji
468
PROPERTIES
OF
l-HE
CARBOHYWIATES.
5o
Sfl
1 ^'^
1^ "
9
"at:
S 3
il
II
ss
o
'a
9D
o
AS
o
o
o
S55Z5
fa
|2i
m
**^
0B4
SO-a "E"
92"M i^
9"n
'^
O
i
S3
1 .
g
8
o
II -"3 8|
I
1=
I
s
II
pa a
la
8
a
a
"
IC O 9"
fa
0
i
S
g
P
fa
O
a
tH
o
n
ii|i
I
Is
!=."? ?_^
g
ft
K
Pi4
93 of
5-5j-S
O
" m
(4
n
m ^"3
S
8 I
8
o
8
s
o
n OQ
s n
I
i s
lis
a
BO a a
I
SgT"
I o
4"
PROPERTIES
OF
THE
"3
S a
go d
g
d
"S
:
"
"
hi
o
"
s
^^ t .
"
0)
"
"
"^
o
s " "*
d
"
2
O*^
o " m
go
"Sp 02
n
2
"^ O Ah
I GQ
CARBOHYDRATES.
469
470
MIXTURES
FREEZING
FREEZING
339.
MIXTURES."
(Walker's
Ltst.)
T"MPERAT(TRK
Parte
From
Ainmonium Water
Nitrate.
Ainmonium Potassium Water
Chloride. Nitrate ^
to
.
.
to
From
"
to
Nitrate
,
Carbonate :
Water
From
..
....
to
.
to
Sodium Sulphate ...... Chloride.. Ammonium Nitrate Potassium Nitric Acid, diluted....
From
Sodium Ammonium Nitric
Snow Sodium
Sulphate .
From From
16*.l
-
-
10*
From
to
-
to
From
to-
8*
-12*.9
to
From
8* -18*.6
4 to
4- 50*
From
-19*5
+
3*
10*
8*
-17*3
-j-8*
12*
+
8* -15*.5-
-f to
-f 50*
From
-40*
From
7*
-f 50* to
28*.3
to
-H 50*
8* 9* .3
-
-{-8* to-12*.4
From-f
-\-50*
to-
+
From
40*
4- 8* to
32*
-
ice..
pounded Chloride
10*
From
3*
-
-12*.4
to
+ 60*
to
24*. 4
-
+ to
.
From
From
10*
4-4*
to-
10* 21*.7
-I-10*
From
Nitrate. Acid, diluted....
or
-
-f 3*.5 to
-f-50* to
19* .4
From
4- 50*
From
-
R6auraur.
-\-40* + 4*
to +
-f 10"
to
"
From
From
-|-10*
From
Sulphate Sulphuric Acid, dilut.. Sodium
l(y* la^.a
to
-
+
...
diluted..
Acid,
From
-f 10* i5*.5
+ to
From
Phosphate
Sodium Nitric
-
to
.
Nitrate.
Ammonium Soilium
From
.
Acid, diluted...
Fahrenheit.
15"".5
-
+
From
.
4" .4
-f
.
.
Chloride. Ammonium Nitrate Potassium Sodium Sulphate Water Sodium Nitric
Centif^rade.'
FAIXS"
mon (com-
to
-
20*.5
to -5*
24*.4
to-
27*.7
to
81*.6
to
to
-
16*.4
salt) Snow Sodium "
Chloride
Chloride
Chloride
Sodium
to
1
Chloride
-
-
to
22*.8
-
ice. ] .
(,com-
to
salt) Nitrate.
Ammonium
From
Sulphuric
Acid, dilu'd
0* to
Acid
to
to .
-
-25*
-f to
From 32*.8
-
+ to
to
32*
From
23*
to
32*
From
27*
-
to
-f 32*
From 34*.4
-
.
25*.8
-
to
to
0* 24*.4 0* 26*.2
-
From
30*
-
-
-
0* 27*.6
I
Snow Calciiun
From
Chloride (Chloride of Lime)..
0* to
Snow Calcium
Chloride, crystallized
From 30*.5
0*
From
,.
Acid, diluted.
-
0*
From
Snow
Hydrochloric
-
..
Snow
Snow Potash
18*
19* .5
-
(com-
pounded
or
Snow Nitric
fo
Chloride.. Nitrate ..^
Ammonium Potassium
mon
12*
.
salt)
m"on
-
ice. i
pounded
or
to
..
Ammonium
Snow Sotiium
.
(com-
salt)
mon
Sqow
ice.
pounded
or
40*
-
0*
From to
3
From
-
From 45*.5
0*
From to
-
to
to
From 46*. 1
to
+ 32*
From
0*
40*
to
-82*
-f 32*
From
50*
to
-|-32*
From
-
-
-51*
to
0* -
36*.4 0*
-
W*.9
STRENGTH
340.
TABLE
^OIL GRADE."
OF
OP
SHOWING
THE
VITRIOL)
OF
(Otto's
Tablb.)
; ULPHURIC
STRENGTH
DIFFERENT
471
ACID.
OF
SULPHURIC
DENSITIES,
AT
ACID IS"
CENT!
172
DILUTION
341.
TABLE
ANTHONYS
ACID.
SULPHURIC
OP
THE
FOB
DmUTION
OF
SULPHURIC
ACID.
342.
TABLE BY
SHOWING
SPECIFIC
THE
STRENGTH
GRAVITY.
Tempkraturb
(Fresenius. Zeitschrift
OF
HYDRATED
NITRIC
AND
ACID
ANHYDRIDE.
15"*.
f. aoaljrt. Chemie.
5. 449.)
(HNO,)
STRENGTH
TABLE
*
SHOWING
Formula
343.
OF
THE
:
NO,H
TABLE LIMB
ACID,
OF
THE VARIOUS
NITRIC
AMOUNT DENSITIES
473
ETC.
ACID.
t Formula:
+ IHHaO.
SHOWING OF
STRENGTH
NITRIC
OF
NOsH CaO
AT
IN
15"" C.
-Continued.
+ 8HaO.
MILK
OF
474
MILK
344.
TABLE UME
345.
TABLE
OF
LIME.
SHOWING OF
AMOUNT
THE
(Muriatic Lehrb.
OF
CaO
IN
MILK
OF
DENSITIES.-CMatbgczbk.)
STRENGTH
OF
HYDROCHLORIC
Acid) SOLUTIONS.
Tempkrature, (Graham-Otto*s
ACID.
HYDROCHLORIC
THE
VARIOUS
SHOWING ACID
"
d. Chem.
16'* C. 3 Aufl.
IL
Bd^
1. Abth.
p
3S-3.)
476
a48.
SODIUM
SHOWING
TABLE
SOLUTIONS
349.
TABLE
SHOWING IN
SOLUTIONS
POTASSIUM
AND
QUANTITY
THE OF
THE OF
VARIOUS
QUANTITY VARIOUS
HYDRATES.
OF
SODIUM
OXIDE
DENSITIES.
OP
POTASSIC
DENSITIES.
OXIDE!
IN
OF
GRAVITY
SPECIFIC
CANB
477
SOLUTIONS.
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478
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480
OF
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SPECIFIC
SOLUTIONS.
SUGAR
% 00
SSweoeo
CO CO CO CO CO
CO CO CO CO CO
cococo^
CO '^00 a*
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s
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coco
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OF
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SPECIFIC
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481
SOLUTIONS.
SUGAR
^J4 ^J( ^1 ^4
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"o u5
2
482 TABLE
351. AND
SHOWING
BAUM^,
SOLUTIONS
A
AND
AT
OF
17^" C"
SOLUTIONS.
SUGAR
OF
COMPARISON
COMPARISON THE
OF
THE
DEGREES
GRAVITY
SPECIFIC
BRIX
OF
SUGAR
(Stammbb.)*
I
3
.1
0 1
.2 .3
0.1 0 2
1.7 1.8 8 9
.4
0.8
9
.6 .6
0.3
.7
0.4 0.45
2
0.5
2
0.0
.8 .9 1.0 .1 .2
.3 .4 .5 .6
.7 .8 .9 2.0 .1 .2 .3 .4
0.0
1
2.3
0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.85 09 1.0 1.0 1.1
2.3 2.4 2.4
2.5 2.55 2 6
2.7 2.7
2.8 8 9 95 0 1
1.1 1 2 1.2
1.8 1.4
1
1.02378 1.02413 1.00454 1 .02494 1.02535 1.02575 1.02616 1.02657 1.02694 1.02738
1.01570 1.01610 1.01650 1.01690 1 01780 1.01770 1.01810 1.01850 1.01890 1.01930
1.02778 1.02819 1.02860 1.02901 1.02942 1.02983 1.O8024 1.00064 1.03105 1.03146
1.01970 1.02010 1.02051 1.02091 1 02131 1.02171
1.03187 08228 03276 08311 03352
.5 .6
1.4 1.5
8.2
1.02211
.7
1.5
8.2
1.02252
.8 .9
1.6
3.3 3.35
1.02292 1.02338
1.6
CORRECTION
^
0 20
0.3
1.01178 1.01213 1.01252 1.01292 1.01332 1.01371 1.01411 1.01451 1.01491 1.01581
The
degrees
FOR
Baum6
BRIX
TEMPERATURE,
of
degrees according to Gerlach.
this
table
are
03893
03434 08475 03517 03558
SPINDLE,"
the
corrected
(Qkrlaoh.)
or
new
484 TABLE
OF
COMPARISON
SHOWING
A AND
SUGAR
OF
COMPARISON BAUME,
SOLUTIONS.
ETC."
THE
Continued.
DEGREES
BRIX
COMPARISON
TABLE
SHOWING
OF
A AND
SUGAR
COMPARISON
BAUMfi,
SOLUTIONS.
OF ETC."
THE
ConKnwed.
DEGREES
485 BRIZ
486 TABLE
OF
COMPARISON
SHOWING
A AND
COMPARISON
BAUMfi,
SOLUTIONS.
SUGAR
OF
ETC."
THE
Otwttntted.
DEGREES
BRLX
OF
COMPARISON
TABLE
SHOWING
A
AND
OF
COMPARISON
BAUME,
SOLUTIONS,
SUGAR
ETC."
THE
Continued.
DEGREES
487 BRIX
COMPARISON
OP
BUOAH
SOLUTIONS.
CORRECTION
3fi2.
BRIX
OP
TABLE
3CALE
STANDARD,
Add
FOR
REAIiINQS
THE
FOB
to
THE
BRIX
OF
CORRECTION
VARIATIONS
n"i" C. {N^'
the coirecdoD
ON
IN
SCALE.
READIHOS
TEMPERATURE
ON FROM
F.)." (GKBi^Acn.)
re^din^
at
'e
X7H' C. ma
F.) anil
Bubtnet
THE THE
490
o
SACCHAROMBTER.
OP
READINGS
TEMPERATURE
*-"
o ^
"""
o o
O
H
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9i
08
S
a)
:s s
Q Pi
Q " H
:S
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o
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QQ
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o
H
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;^ o
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o8
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S
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a
TS
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U
IS
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o
08
h In
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BQ
73
oa
CO
*i
OS M
a OD
O " 08
o
S P
o CO
X O
"0 "
C"l"OOCOt^ eow^^i-iO
QOQ-^00 "o"o"o^co "
a
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"
"
o o
2
^
a
a " a M
""
5
"
08
0)
0"
00
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COMt-ir-iO
CO t*
MO0eQ00-"4t lO^^COCO
OOCOOOMCO WNi-ii-iO
09
0)
o
-a
"^
s *x
OQ
i
73
o
a 00 "
a o
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"
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9 -a
a;
08 08
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1 O
V a
tm
OQ
Pi
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0)
ea
"a "a 73
^
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V "*"
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08
.
3
OS
08
2 M
-3
a
o M
m
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03
ti
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O
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O"HWC0'"J"
iOOt^"OS
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"
492 354. HOUSE
SUBSTANCE
DRY
GEERLIGS' PRODUCTS
IN
TABLE
SUGAR-HOUSE
FOR BY
ABBE
[Intern. Sugar
DRY
SUBSTANCE
REFRACTO
J., 10,
PRODUCTS.
METER, p.
69.]
IN AT
SUGAR28*"
C.
DRY
GEERLIGS*
SUBSTANCE
TABLE
IN
FOR
SUGAR-HOUSE
DRY
PRODUCTS."
SUBSTANCE
Continued.
rRODUCTC.
IN
SUGAR-HOUSE
493
494
CORRECTIONS
s
s
s
s
I ^
s
FOR
THB
TEUPBRATDBB.
PER
WEIGHT
355.
CUBIC
FOOT.
CUBIC (Brix)
WEIGHT PER THE SHOWING TABLE SOLIDS U. 8. GALLON (231 Cu.iv.) AND / AT SOLUTIONS 17J" C.
(Based
upon
Stammer's
Table,
p.
482.)
495 AND FOOT OF SUGAR
496
WBIGHT
PEE
CUBIC
FOOT.
WEIGHT
WEIGHT De-
gree Weight Brix.
65.60 .76 66.0.26 .60 .76 67.0 .26 .60 .76
68.0 .25 .60 .76
69.0 .26 .50 .76
70.0 .26 .60 .76 71 .0 .26 .50 .75 72.0 .26 .60 .76 73.0 .25 .60 .75 74.0 .26 .50 .75 75.0 .25 .50 .75 76.0 .25 .50 .75 77.0 .25 .50 .75 78.0 .25 .50 .75 79.0 .25 .50 .75 80.0 .25 .50
.75
1 cu.ft. 1
PER
PER
CUBIC
CUBIC
FOOT."
Solids of
(Briz)
Lbs. 64.04
54.31 64.67 64.84 56.11 56.38 55.66
55.92 66.19 66.46 66.73 67.00 67.28 57.66 67.84 68.12 68.40 58.68 68.96 59.24 69.62 69.80 60.08 60.36 60.65 60.93 61.22 61.50 61.78 62.07 62.35 62.64 62.93 63.22 63.61 63.80 64.09 64.38 64.67 64.96 65.26 65.56 65.85 66.15 66.44 66.73 67.02 67.32 67.62 67.92 68.22 68.52 68.82 69.12 69.41 69.71 70.01 70.31 70.62 70.93 71
71
24 65
Continued. Solids
De-
greeWeight
per
Briz.
gal. 1 cu.ft. 1 gal
Lbs. Lbs. 82.49 11.02 82.68 11.03 82. 68 11.06 82. 77 11.06 82. 87 11.07 82. 96 11.08 83.06 11.10 83.16 11 11 83.26 11, 12 83.35 11, 13 11 15 83.45 11 16 83.64 83 64 11 17 83, 74 11 18 83. 84 11 20 83 93,11 21 84. 03 11 22 84, 12 11 23 84. 23 11 26 84. 32 11 27 84. 42 11.28 84. 51 11.29 84. 62 11.31 84. 72 11.32 84. 82 11.33 84. 92 11.34 85. 02 11.36 85.11 11.37 85.21 11.39 85.31 11.40 85.41 11.42 85.51 11.43 85.61 11.44 85.71 11.46 11.47 85.81 85.91 11. 4" 86.01 11.49 86.11 11.60 86.22 11.62 86.32 11.63 86.42 11.65 86.62 11.66 86.63 11.58 86.73 11.59 86.83 11.60 86.93 11.61 87.04 11.63 87.14 11.64 87.24 11.66 11.67 87.34 87.45 11.69 87.55 11.70 87.65 11.71 87, 75 11.72 87. 86 11.74 87. 96 11.75 88. 07 11.77 88. 17 11.78 88.28 11.80 88.38 11.811 88.49 11.821 88.59 11.83
497
FOOT.
Lbs. 7.22 7.25 7.29 7.32 7.36 7.39 7.43 7.47 7 61 7. 55 7. 58i 7. 61 i 7. 65, 7. 69i 7. 73 7. 76 7. 80 7. 84 7. 88 7. 92 7.96 8.00 8.03 8.07
81.0 .25 .60 .75 82.0 .25 .50
.76
1 cu.ft. 1
Lbs. 88.70 88.80 88.91 89.02 89.13 89.23 89.34 89.44
89.66 89.65 89.76 89.86 89.97 90.07 90.18 90.29 90.40
8.19 8.23
83.0 .26 .50 .76 84.0 .26 .50 .75 85.0 .25 .50 .76 86.0 .26 .60 .75 87.0 .25 .50 .75
8.27
88.0
91.70
.25 .50 .76 89.0 .26 .50 .75 90.0 .25 .50 .75 91.0 .25 .50 .75 92.0 .25
91.81 91. 92
8.11 8.15
8.31 8.34
8.38 8.42 8.46 8.49 8.53 8.57 8.61 8.64
8.68 8.72 8.76 8.80 8.84 8.88 8.92 8.96 9.00 9.04 9.08 9.12 9.16 9.20 9.24
9.27 9.31
9.35 9.39 9.44 9.48 9.52 9.56
-
.50
.75 93.0 .25 .50
.75 94.0 .25 .60 .75 95.0 .25 .50 .75 96.0 .25 .50
of
9Q.50 90.61 90.72 90.83 90.94 91.04 91.15 91.26 91.37 91.48 91.59
92. 92.
gal
Lbs. 11.86 11.86 11.88 11.89 11.91 11.92 11.94 11.96 11.97
92. 25 92. 36 92. 47 92. 58
92. 69 92. 80 92.91 93.02 93.13 93.24 93. 35 93. 47 93. 58 93. 69 93.80 93.92 94 .03 94 .14 94 25
per
1 cu.ft. 1
gal
Lbs. 71.86 72.17 72.48 72.79 73.09 73.40 73.71 74.02 74.33 74.64 74.96
11. 99 12. 00 12. 02 12. 03 12.05 12.07 12.08 12.09 12. 11 12. 13 12. 14 12. 15 12.17 12.18 12.20 12.21 12.23 12.24 12.26 12.27
Lbs. 9.61 9.65 9.69 9.73 9.77 9.81 9 86 9 89 9 94 9 98 10 02 75.26 10.06 75.67 10.10 75.89 10.14 76.20 10.18 76.62 10.22 76.84 10.27 77.16 10.31 77.48 10.35 77.80 10.40 78.11 10.44 78.43 10.48 78. 75 10.52 79. 08 10.57 79. 41 10.62 79. 73 10.66 80. 06 10.71 80. 38 10.75 80. 70 10.79 81.02 10.83
12.28
81.34
10.88
81.66
10.92
82.00 82.32 82.67 82.99 83.32 83.65 83.99 84.32 84.66
11.00 11.05 11.09 11.13 11.17 11.22 11.26
11.9^
03112.29 14
(Briz)
12.31 12.32 12.34 12.35 12.37 12.38 12.40 12.41 12.43 12.44 12.46 12.47 12.49 12.50 12 52 12, 63 12. 55 12. 66 12. 58 12.69 12.61 12.62
10.96
M.31
84.98
11.35
85.22
11.40 11.44 11.49 11.53 11.58 11.62 11.67 11.71 11.76 11.80 11.84 11.80 11.94 11.99 12.04 12.08
85.66
86.99 86.32 86.66 87.00 87.36 87.69 88.03 88, 37 88. 71 89. 06 89. 40 89. 74 90.09 90.44 12 90.78 91.13 12 12 91.48
94 37 94.48 94.60 12.64 94 71 12.66 94. 83 12.67 94. 94 12.68 95. 06^ 12.70 95. 17 12. 71 95. 29 12. 73 95. 40 12. 91.83 95. 52"12 76l 92.18
12 12
12 17 22 26 30
WANTAGE
386.
TABLE
FOR
(EMPTY
(TANK AND
(Lat
m
THE
CUHIC
IF"nDU"";
fiva
OF
THE
WANTAGE
CYLINDRICAL
HORIZONTAL
CRYSTALLIZERS,
ETC.).
IN
TANKS U.
8. GALLONS
FEET. D
tr-(0"X^XL)+231, 1728
TANKB.
CALCULATION IN
BPACE)
CARa.
CYLINDRICAL
nDta"e
-diameter
ol
in
waatsce
in cubic
Unk;
fen.
U.
All
/-depth S.
(alloiu.
dimeiuioiu
at
or us
empty
apace
dividi;iBby in
ineW.)
SCHMITZ'S
500
ONiaTXH
FOR
fHc^eo^toor^xo)
I
Q
TABLE
SUCROSE.
e"HC4co^to"or"QOO"
e^nci
0"OOOi-tCO"-4COi^CO IOt^OC4"Or"OC4tOt"
""lcDi-t OC"4tO
Mcicocoeoeo-^'^^^
"itoto
iot"ooitot"OMtor"
eciio
MC4cococoec^'4"'"t*^
loitQto
e^iot"oc4tot^oc4
"Hr^C4C^Oir""M00C0X i0r^oc"4tQt"ooi*or""
MOO ee^to
ddd"-i"-4^"-iC4ci
Mcicococoeo^^^^
latoio
"0 do C4 lO b"
Mt"C^O0C^
O
"
o
H
d
"00'00"00"00t0 Ol to t" O C4 "0 1^
O
d d d
"-"
^
C"4
1-H
1-1
e^c^
"-i
Ki
esi C4
1^ oitot"oc40i"o"N
Q
i
d
d
o
1-1 ^
tOQ"0"-""DrH(Ci.-i" o
"* en
Q
0)
OD
"-t
?D
O
0"
0.(N iO r" O 1-1
00 W l0t"OC4"Ot"OC4"Ob-
r*
C4
00 "*"
CO
^o"^ OtNiO
00
ddd"-""-" "-I"-iwN
"icieococoeo'*^^'^
loitoto
O
iO'-^"0'-""'-"t^Nt* c4iot"oiNtot"oe4
MOOCOXCOOO^a^Q ior^oc4toi"o6iiooo
MOtO ocoto
"
00* ddd"-i"-Ht"""-ioie^ OTCsiooeococo^^^^
2P a
o
00
p
O 00
go
M "^
U
"2
to
o
o
a P
ddd
1-1 "-"oiei mo^eoeoneo^'^-^yi
-Si
QQ
o
"
3"
n
Q
"90t* ocoto
i-i
loitoto
lOrHtoi-tts-Mt^cox (NtOt"OMtQr"OOI
^d^q)to"-4cp"-4oc4 Mb"06|tOXOe"9tOX
t"c")x OCOtO
ddd^^i-"i-ie""e4
Mcieoeoeooo^^^^
M"toto
"Oi-i"ciK.POXeooo e"4iot^OMtot"-oc^
^OtOOcOMr"c"t"eo lexocotoxoraiox
Meoa" ecoto
dddrHf-"i-i*-ic^c4
Mcicqooeoeo^'^^^
lotoio
to"-i"c"it"-c9o"^q"
i"otoooc4t"cox^ lOXOCOtOXOCOtOX
C" to t^
O
C4 to l" O
CO
d d d
"-"
1-1"-""-"
o""-! i""
cFi
e" "
^d
"^~o~ OCOCO
"foieoeoeoco^Tj*^^
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to "^ "o ^V* lOXOCOtOXOCOtOX
o"o v4C0
to
cs X CO " C^tOr^O(NtOt"OcO
X
to
ddd
o
"o"Ht^wxcoo"'*o citot"oe^tot^Oco
tOfHcpcixcoa^a} laxocotooooeoto
to
ddd^i-I"Hf-lNC"
WINCOCOCOCO^^^ ^
to
t^csi X "o ^ C4tor^OC"tOXOCO
N
d "^
CO
"ien*cococoeo^^^^ i-*i-I"-ii-"Ne"
"
"
lOto
"
"
"
.
"
O
M O H
P
55
O
1^
*a"t; ^ o
Q o
to o
Q
^
"
"
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"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
dddi-*i-Ii-i"-HciN
Mcicocococo^
""-it^COX"^"*OtOi-"
""NXC0O"^
"
"
"
"
"
es)tot"Oc^toxOeo
loxocqtooo
"
"
"
.
...
v-eox'^ ooooco
CO
dddi-Ii-Ii^fHNci
Mc^icoco
o
"DC4toCOO"tOOOCI 04tot"oe^toxoco
"0C0 lex
CO
s
"
to
iM fi CO Oi cmot^owtoxo
C9
OOOi^*-t"^iHCI
to
^
CO
"-"
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1-11-JfHcicsi MCii '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.
ddd"H lo
03
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^~~^
(0"Nh"coa"toQOi-4 WtoNOWtOXOCO
""a
"
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to
"
"^^ ^~~^
ci F^roxco"
lOXOCOtOOOO
dddiH"-"i-Ii-Iwc"i
a
"
"
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OB
H H
-"
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d
o
"
'. '.
''
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~
'
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...
(4
o
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o QQ
to
iAt^ocmor"oeotox
c^
M
S
H
o
o
o
5
o
"-""-"
""M^oa^ t"
P
is
QQ
o p
io
QQ OD
P
o
OS^OO
to^to^t^Mr^wx. o (N
c"4 to t"
Mfttoio
"8
to
O
1^
o" "o
1^
co(n1""^o"
^
"-"
"-"
.
.
^~~'
^~~-
"
"
"
"
"
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^
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^~~-
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'
.
.
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;
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""""....."
o
o
1-1
C4 CO ^
"^
^^
...
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00
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to CO t" X
o"
Oi-
"
.
.
r~T
Wtoi".ON o
"
."
;
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^~~'
e^co-^iocot^xoft
e"-4d
r
'"'St:"''g*
a'"g""3""ffl"""~^
5!5:S2 5? i
iiil i! lis
scruitz'b
tablb
for
sucrose.
BCHUITZ'S
TABLE
FOB
SUCBOSB.
BCHUITZ'S
"j
3;3!33:SS%S3
TABLE
K"B
SS3S2SS"S3
STTCBOSE
S53S8SSS33
SS
SCHMITZ'S
SUCROSE
FOR
TABLE
SCHMITZ'S
FOR
TABLE
505
SUCROSE.
METHOD)."
(HORNE'S
Continued.
.
Degbebs
Bbix
and
Feb
Centb
o
Sucbobb.
20.5
21.0
21.5
22.0
22.5
23.0
9.61 9.86 10.10 10.34
9.60 9.84 10.08 10.32
10.58
10.56 10.80
9.06 9.80 10.04 10.28 10.52 10.76 11.00 11.24 11.48 11.72
9.64 9.78 10.02 10.26 10.49 10.73 10.97
49
10.82 11.06 11.30 11.54 11.78
9.68 9.82 10.06 10.30 10.64 10.78 11.02 11.26 11.60 11.74
9.61 9.76 10.00 10.24 10.47 10.71 10.95 11.19 11.43 11.67
9.80 9.74 9.98 10.22 10.46 10.69 10.93 11.17 11.41 11.66
9. 9. 72 9. 96 10. 20 10. 44 10. 67 10. 90 11, 14 11, .38 11, 62
fO 51 52 53 54 56 66 67 68 69
11.08 12.27 12.61 12.76 12.98 13.22 13.47 13.71 13.96 14.19
11. 00
11.98 12.22 12.46 12.70 12.94 13.17 13.41 13.65 13.89 14.13
11.95 12.19 12.43 12.67 12.91 13.15 13.39 13.63 13.87
11.98 12.17 12.41 12.66 12.89 13.12 13.36 13.60 13.84 14.08
11.90 12.14 12.38 12.62 12.86 13.09
11.88 12.12 12.35
11 12 12, 12
12.83 13.06
12
13.33
13.30
13.67 14.05
13.54 13.77 14.01
13 13
60 61 62 63 64 66 66 67 68 69
14.48 14.67 14.91 15.15 15.39 15.63 15.87 16.11 16.35 16.59
14. 14. 14. 16.
14. 8T
14.84 14.58 14.82 15.06
14.81
16.46
14.18 14.52 14.76 14.99 15.24 15.48 15.71 15.95 16.19 16.43
14.16 14.49 14.73 14.96 16.20 16.44 15.68 15.92 16.16 16.39
70 71 72 73 74 76 76 77 78 79
16.84 17.08 17.32 17.66 17.80 18.04 18.28 18.52 18.76 19.00
16. 17 17 17 17 18 18 18 18 18
68 92
16.78 16.97 17.21 17.46 17.69 17.93 18.17 18.41 18.65 18.89
16.70 16.93 17.17 17.41 17.65 17.89 18.13 18.37 18.61 18.86
16.66 16.89 17.13 17.37 17.61 17.85 18.09 18.33 18.57 18.81
16. fl 16.09 16.86 16.83 17.10 17.07 17.34 17.31 17.68 17.55 17.81 17.78 18.02 18.06 18.29 18.26 18.53 18.49 18.77 18.73
16. 16.79 17.03 17.27 17.50 17.74 17.98 18.22 18.46 18.69
70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79
80 8r 82 83 84 85
19
19. 16
19.11
19.08 19.32 19.56 19.80 20.04 20.28
19.04 19.28 19.62 19.76 19.99 20.23
19.00 19.24 19.48 19.72 19.96 20.19
18.91 19.16 19.40 19.64 19.88
80 81 82 83 84 85
40 41 42 43 44 46 46
47 48
14
11.04 11.28 11.62 11.76 12. 24 12. 48
12. 12. 13. 13.
72 96 20 44
13. 68
13. 92 14. 16 40 64 88
114.61
114.85
14.11
15. 36
116.09 15.33
16. 60
|16.67 16.54
12
16. 84 16. 08 16. 32
16. 56 80 04 28 62 76 00 24
48 72 96
19. 10 19. 44 19. 68
16.81 16.06 16.29 16.53 16. 17. 17. 17. 17. 17. 18. 18. 18. 18.
19.
77 00 24 48 72 96 20 44
116.30 15.78 16.02 16.26 16.50
40119.36
{19.64
19.60
19. 88
19.84
12
20.08 20.32
20.
11.21
11.46 11.69
14.55
14.79 16.03 15.27 16.61 15.74 15.98 16.22
13.81
12.59
23.5
24.0
20.0
13
13
13
9
9 .70 9 10 10 10 10 11 11 11
.94 .18 .41 .64 .88 .12 .36 .60
80 11 09 12 33 12 67 12 81 12 04 13 28 13 ,52 13 ,75 13 98 13
14.81 14.46 14.69 14.93
15.17 15.41 15.64 15.88 16.12 16.35
18.96 19.20 19.44 19.68 19.92 20. 15
14. 14 14. 14. 15. 15. 15. 15. 16. 16.
07 30 53 77 01 24 48 72 96 19 42 66
90 14 38 61
86 09 33
20.10
04 40 41 42 43 44 45 40 47 48 40 60 51 52 53 64 55 56 67 68 59 oa 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69
iK=s!"K
sssma
iiii
igjgggH;
:"5"iSiS- :S5
SSiJH'SS
^!H*"!S5 llii
HiSSSHS
^S5H;3HS 'fS*
13K'!?35
HSH;35H
SS'2'HH
HHSS'S
I If
ii
CALCOLATrON
m
OF
PER
t
SiS-";S
^S"!S'';SI^5MHi
sssssi
isiona
-SSiS
S5i!52K"
iSismi
msSi
dlS^"??^^
*^-^S^^w^^
CALCU^TION
OF
PER
CENTS
SUCROSE.
60S
510
CALCULATION
r^le:;"Q"""!;33
9^^%Z'9S^9Z
OP
PER
CENTS
SUCROSE.
SsSSZSS^SS
gSSffSSS"SS
SsSSZSSlaSS
S"38SSS"S"
i
"
OP
CALCULATION
80HMITZ'
TABLE
FOR
THE
SUCROSE."
Dborbb
Brix
CENTS
PER
OF
CALCULATION
C?ontmM"d.
from
23
to
51^
SUCROSE.
24.
PER
CENTS
512
TABLE
359.
FOR
TABLE
FOR
THE
THE
CALCULATION
CALCULATION
SOLUTIONS."
OF
(Dr. Chas.
SUCROSE.
OF
A.
ZN
SUCROSE
Crampton
SUGAR
)
^Take 50 cc. sugar solution; darifv, dilute to 100 oc. aad polarize in a to the tube; multiply the reading by the factor corresponding
SOO-mm.
density
*
of the
Factor
plate
1
mm.
the
solution
to obtain
the
for Laurent instruments thick. Polariscopes of
factor.
per
cent
sucrose.)
graduated thji m'ake
by should
means
be
of
tested
a
quarts
mine to deter-
TABLE
TABLE
"
FOR
FOR
Factor
plate
1
mine
the
mm.
THE
THE
CALCULATION
CALCULATION
OF
OF
factor.
Conhnued.
SUCROSE."
instruments graduated by for Laurent should thick. Polariscopes of this make
513
SUCROSE.
meann
be
of tested
a
to
quartz deter^
514
AVAILABLE
SUGAR
TABLES.
09
d
o
0 "s
*
CO Ok
a o
a
516
OF
RECIPROCALS
361.
OF
"RECIPROCALS
"
See
pace
25C
for
11 TO
FROM
NUMBERS BY
NUMBERS.
38, ADVANCING
TENTHS.
suggestions
relative
to
the
use
of this
table.
TABLE
519
SUGAR.
INVERT
FOR
"^-ooo"o^He"eo'^l^cp^.oo"Q1-^c^eolO"p^go"o^e^^
00 00 Oft a" o" ct a" Ob a" Ob a" o
00 CO 00 00 Oft O^
Cb 0" O
O
O
O
..^^ ^ .^..^(.^(^ ,^ ^' eiC4 csiC4
o
o
o
o
"-* *H
^
i-i
d
94 C4 M
04 C4
csiesi e^' C4
o
o
iM Tf (O 00 p CO lo CO CO 00 o CI lo b- o 01 *o t"" a OOQOaOaftO"Ob06C"OOOOi-ii^^"~i0404040I^COCOeceO^
e
^ ^' ^ ^' ,4 iH
f-4
1-4oi oi 04
o*
o*
oi 04
o"
oi o"
o
C4
o
(H
CO CO
1-4
1^
w
CO PO Tf
e^'94 e^ ei c^C4
t" o" c"
04 04
fH
'"" "c a" 04
oi oioi oi oioi
I b-04r""04r*04t^04t^i-He"HiOCb^0001"D^Oi-4iOO"OOiQ "o.MioQ^Acoxo)r"-*H"Do^a"cooooih"*-iccQ"oo6^ao oocbObOOO'-**HO"04coco^^-""o"o"ocDio"^ooaoQooaft
O
a
CO COCO'*!'
tl*^''l'^^^^^^''l*^^^^'^''^^^^^^^
"4
OQ
c
000" r"04 "D O ^ 00 cot* 04 *
o
H Pi
US "0
Q p
"4" QQ C00004 "* 00 e0t"O4
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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03 O
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O
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to cot*
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"""
04 CO ^
to OO
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i~ii-li-i
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04 -" "D W
P
04 to h. 0
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lo
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^
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d ddddd
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CO -^ to CO 00
oi04oi04CO
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1-)
04 0)04
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H
H
o
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t".p04"5toP04"Oh-004tOt"_ ^
SS
udptoptopto
to o ^ ^ 04 tJb t* p 04 to Oft Oft Oft P O O Ol 04 Ol CO CO CO ^
to to to CO CO CO CO to to h. to 00 00 00 00 9
04040tO4O104040l04e"04"l04O404OI0404
to to 0 1-4 CO CO
o
S d o
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c
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.O
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o
5 o
04 04 04 04 CO CO CO CO ^ tH ^ ^ i4" to to to to CD CO CO CO to t* to to to 04 04 04 04 04 C4 01 04 04 C4 04 04 04 04 04 04 04 04 Ol 04 04 04 O) 04 04 04
"o 9
to to to t" to to h" t* to to to t^ h. to 1^ 1^ t. t* b. t* t^ to t"- ts. to l". 1-1 CO to to o) 1-4 CO to to Oft ^ CO to to Oft f-i CO tc to to Oft 1-1 CO to to a
POftpOPPPi-"^i-4"-ii-4e404040404COCOCOCOCO^'^^Tf 1-1
ri
04 04 04 04 04 04
O) 04 04 04 C4
04 04 04 04 Ol O) 04 04 Ol 04 04
04 04
TABLE
INVERT
FOR
US SCO c5 o
r^ a o o
C4 ^
CD 00
i-i
1-1
,-11-1
N
"H
521
SUQAR.
CO CO r" o C4 ^ (O O) *-" CO ko 00 o CI to ^ -^ ^ "o "c "o "* CI w eo " eo 00 00 ^
COOCOCOCOCOCQCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCQPOCOCQCOCOCOCOCOCOCO
co^aoociiot""a""-i'^"owototot"Aci"i4""Dooi-ieoicao "_)00"-"r-""-"i-ii^cicicicieococoPOw"i""i""i""^"o"o"o"5
e
a
coco
CO CO CO coco
coco
coco
cooococococQcococococo
CO
coco
o ^ d
00 1^ eo -^ CI t-" o g" 00 h- " fo "O 'J' CO CO CO N "N CI w 1-1 1-1 1-1 00 CO 00 CO " CO 00 CI t* ci t* w 1^ w t" CI 1^ M t* CI t^ CI ^- CI o 1-) 1-* CI CI CO CO ^ CI CO CO ^ ^ "o t4 CO o t^ t^ oo 00 Ob a" o
COCOCOCOCOCOCO"OCOCDCOCOCOCOCOCOtot^tot^t"t^t"*t"t"
o 00 CO ^ CI o 00 00 r"fHcOi-ico,-Hiooi CI CO CO -^ -^ to to CO
o
"
(
ico*-4a"oor""ococ4f-4a"QQh"co^coci lOlOO^Oi^Oi^OCOQOCOXCOOOCO )t"t^t""xoodfta)OOi-i^cicicoco^
00 COCOCOCOCO(OCOCOCOCOCO"OCOCOCOCOt"t*t^Wt*t^t^t"t"
OCI""f"OQQOCI^(OOOOCI^COOQQC|U3t^O"rH-^(Oa"CI Cl CO ^ lO " W O) O f-i CI ^ to CO t^ 00 O 1-) CI
o
o CO
CO ^
"0"^
00 Oi
1-4
cococdcd(OcdcdtN"'t"'t""'t"it""'h^f""it"ododododxooooxxa)
It
o
OOOCI^(OOOOCI^COOOQCI^COOOOCO"Ot^^C1^CDa)
ci"4iu3CDr""xoiHe"ico-^St""cioo)Ocico^"cco"OdOi-i
CI
s
cdcdcdcocDcdt^t^t"t""r"ii"t^t^i"xooooooaoaoooooAct
h."-t^XCI"0Q^XCI(OP^qQC"C0O"09C0r""CIC0O^ ac5 "'itooa 1-1-^ co" cooooc* lO h-oci ^t^
o
i
*H
cocooo
^
"H
cic"c5cococo^^'^"^^"o"o"o"cjcocdco^t^t"t"^""
CO
cocococOcOcocOcOcOoOcococococococococococococococo
c
C0"^O^00C|OO'f00CIC0Q"00"'^00C0t*Clt*CIC0i-"C0
coooi-icb"ooooeoiot"oci*5t^ac4^i^0bci^t""aci^
e
cicic2cococo'^'^'*^"o"o"o"c"c"cocococo"^r^"^t""oo" '
o
CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO
iiOO."OQ"00*OQ^QU30"C"
)iOQ"CO"COiO"
to
u5 1" O CI u) t^ " ici"oSOci"oi""ciifth-oci"5t^ 00 OO 00 Oi Oi 06 Oi C- '000^"-"i-"-"cicicicicocoeOeo 00 CO CO CO vD coco^^*^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
)d
5
coco
o
t"oc4U3t^ociior""( a" CI '4" CO 00 "-" CO to r"
_
s o
"
"
)Citor"ociu3t"Qc"iot""ocitor" (
"'
"ci^coa"i-ico"oQOOC9 i(Ocococot"t^r"""-Q000(
cococOcococococococococococococococococo*
~
'"
t^oai-ico 00 00 0)06 CO CO CO CO
Ott9C0C0OC0C0C0'c0C0C0C0t0*0t0t0"0"0U3i0*Ci0"0i0 1-^ CO "O t* o" "-" CO "o r*?5" 1^ CO "o t^ CD 17* CO M? t* CD i-Heo"Oh"( CI CI CI CI CO CO CO CO CO 3 -^ ^ :^ -^ ) ri f-t ,1 *-i i-i n OOOQ" "
COCOCOCOl
~
) CO CO
CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO coco
coco
CO CO CO CO CO
^ 622 363.
DETERMINATION
TABLE
FOR
OF
THE
DETERMINATION
PURrrY.-"0.
OF
COEFFICIENTS
OF
KOTTMAN".)
PURITY.
COEFFICIENTS
OF
524
DETERMINATION
TABLE
FOR
OP
THE
COEFFICIENT
DETERMINATION I^VRITY."
OF
OF Continued.
PURITY.
COEFFICIENTS
OP
DETERMINATION
TABLE
FOR
OP
THE
DETERMINATION
PURITY."
OF
COEFFICIENTS
OF Conanucd.
525
PURITY.
COEFFICIENTS
OF
hornb'b
526
table
HORNE'3
334.
FOR
TABLE
COEFFICIENTS
W.
Dr.
OF
^
Home's
D.
analjrsisafiFords
sugar
The
and
will sink
in it
with
solutions in
lead
subacetate
solution.
the
the
filtrate.
In
reading, is the
lead
Dr.
Home's
be
the
ordinary
This
is
Brix
is the
noted
that
this
unobjectionable, provided
this
the
of
the
solution
polarize
ple: Exam-
Under
the
latter
coefficient
of
purity,
using the
solution the
of of
purity
the
Casamajor's
formula,
as
Brix
Degree
Journal
*
See
also
subthan
is used
salt. in
lating follows, in calcu-
26.048
1
38.9.
lead
method
same
ber num-
dry
table:
of
pages,
polariscope
solution.'
the
"__
p,^^^
Coefficient
to defecate
tests.*
used
Home
under
tion, solu-
drous anhy-
following
coefficients
the
using
of the
sand
a
such
powdered
the
method,
lower
After
prepare
shake
and
purity
15.4** Brix
method,
comparative
Dr.
of
can
dry
on
of
eter hydrom-
sand, filter,and
table
degree
gives somewhat
acetate,
all
and
salt
pans
dissolved
mark.
portion
coarse
15.4"; polarization 24.4.
should
It
he
cylinder and
coefficient
opposite
and
a
the
opposite the corrected Brix
that
be Brix
15^
sufficient
little
the
Cover with
thoroughly
find
the
the
unmeasiired
an
and
that
to
glass cylinder, add
small
a
To
ease.
quite
optical
199,
should
molasses
will
chemist
little practice the
in
diluted
or
in
obtaining the samples
of
described
so
nearly
VACUUM-
controlling the
of
means
or
solution
the
THE
dry defecation
of
are
of massecuite
sample
in water
IN
OP
CONTROL.
methods
molasses
and
massecuite
CALCULATION
PURITY
rapid
crystallizers. The
and
THE
method a
pubitt.
of
CRYSTALLIZER
AND
PAN
coefficients
of
purity of page
"
American 170.
Factor
X
Chemical
X
Specific gravity
,
*
Polariscope reading. Society,
36,
No.
2, 186w
HORNE's
table
of
COEFFICIBNTS
OF
PURITY.
52
f
528
HORNe's
table
op
COEFFiaENTS
OP
PURITY.
hokne's
table
op
coeppxcients
op
purity.
529
630
horne's
table
of
coefficients
of
purity.
532 aee.
INDEX
inde"
of
USED
OF
SUBSTANCSS.
substances
FOR
that
are
SUGAR-CONTAINING
been
have
or
DECOLORftiNG
PURIFYING.
FYING CLARI-
AND
SOLUTIONS.*
(A list of the abbreviationa
of
r^erenoes
is given
end
the
at
of
this
iadez.)
I. SvLPHUB;
Compounds
Acids,
DBBrvATiyiiB.
and
III, 86; 1836). Sulphide (Sievier, 1847,
(Leuchs
1. Sulphur 2.
Its
Hydrogen
in
Wooderoft,
Hlavati,
94;
Chs.. 28, 1180).
Persulphide (Hlavati, Chs., 28, 1180).
3. Hydrogen
Sulphuric Acid (Achard, about 1800, Gesch., 407; Keaaler, Z., 16, D. Z., 12. 491). 760; Hagemann, f 'S. Sulphuric Acid with Lime (M"ge, D., 115, 215). 6. Sulphuric Acid with Zinc Chloride (Thiele. Chi., 20, 404). 7. Sulphuric Acid with Zinc Sulphate (Terry, 1833, in Wooderoft, 54). 4.
8.
Potassium
9.
Ammonium
Sodium
or
Sulphate
Sulphate
10.
Sulphuric with
11.
Sulphurous Paris,
X.
1811,
Zerban,
Gesch., 423).
1830.
(Dullo, D., 155, 71; Beanes.
Sulphurous
Aoid
(Macfadyen,
Aoid
D., 167, 220).
(Possos, D., 170, 64).
(Drapies, "Bull, de 56; Perpere, 1812,
la
d'encourag.,"
Soci6t6
and
Dubrunfaut,
1829,
1908.
12. Sulphurous
Acid
and
13.
Sulphurous
Acid
14.
Sulphurous
Acid
Hydrogen
with
Sulphide (Hlavati.
Calcium
with
Bl. Ass.. 16, 759).
Bisulphite (Stolle,D., 114, 305).
Chloride
Lime
of
Phenol
and
(Menier,
Bl. Ass., 10, 165.) 15.
Sulphurous
16.
Sodium
17.
Potassium
Acid
and
Phenol
Sulphite (Perrier and
(Kowalski,
Z., 55, 396).
Possos, Z., 12, 128;
Rttmpler,
N.
Z.,
30, 204). S. ind., 47, 684). Sulphite (Cassel and Kempe, Sulphite (Beanes, D.. 167, 220). Sulphite (Prout, 1810; Melsens, C. r., 55. 729; Calvert*
18.
Ammonium
19.
Calcium
20.
Barium
21.
Magnesium
22.
Z., 12, 500).
Sulphite
with
Oxygen
(Bouillant, S. ind., 50, 189). Z., 23. 47;
(Mehay,
Sulphite
Drost
and
23.
D. Z., 24, 203). 1847, in Wooderoft. 98). (ScofTern, Sulphite N. Z., 16, 70). Ferrous Sulphite (Englert and Becker,
24.
Aluminum
25.
Aluminum
1885, 891;
Degener,
Lead
Sulphite (Boulin, 1846,
Z., 44. 456;
*
Schuls, Oe.,
Compilation
Deutsche
supplied Sugar
by
Prof.
Zuckerindustrie, through
Trade
the
with
Dr.
Calcium
Edmund
Vol. XXXIV,
courtesy
Laboratory.
15;
Brandt,
1846,
Z., 23, 27).
Mehay,
Sulphite
in Zerban,
of
Dr.
Hydrate
O. p. 9
von
(Schubarth,
Lippmann,
(Jan., 1909).
Charles
A.
"
Browne,
Z.. 2, 129).
printed
in
Translation New
York
INDEX
26.
Aluminttm
27.
Aeid
28.
Acid
29.
Acid
30.
Acid
SSA
SUBSTANCES.
OF
Manganese Sulphate (Maas6, Z., 10, 256). Sulphite (Z., 1, 254; Cassel and Kempe, S. ind., 47,
Sulphite with
Potassium
684).
Sulphite (Perrier and Possoi. Z.. 12. 128). Bisulphite (Allabard, Engl. Sulphite with Calcium
Sodium Alkali
Patent
Acid
Reynoso.
Calcium
Sulphite with
Sulphite, also with Alum
Acid
Barium
34.
Acid
Strontium
36.
Acid
Acid
(Lapeyi
(Lapesrrere,see
above).
S. ind., 9, 379).
Sulphite (Melsens. Magne^jim Sulphite (Mehay,
Z., 23, 26; Hulwa,
Oe., 13
Saillard, S. ind., 42, 82).
465;
37.
Calcium
S. ind., 27, 568).
33.
Add
Melsens. D."
(Leyde. Z.. 1, 365). Hydrate and Alum
Alum
Sulphite with
rere,
36.
Zerban. 15;
Z.. 12, 500).
Calcium
32. Acid
in
Sulphite (StoUe. 1838.
117, 136; 31.
7).
No.
Calcium
Sulphite (Becker, N.Z., 16, 6). Aluminum Sulphite (Stolle, 1838, S. ind., 8, 295;
Iron
Becket
Z., 35, 924). 38.
Sulphite with
Aluminum
Acid
Aluminum
Phosphate
(Schiller,
Z. B.. 12, 509).
Trisuiphite (?) (Labarre. Oe., 18, 36).
30.
Calcium
40.
Basic
41.
Hypoeulphurous
42.
Sodium
43.
Sodium
Sulphite (Berggreen.
Magnesium
Acid
Hyposulphite Hyposulphite
B., 16, 2542).
(Talamo,
N. Z., 29, 211; Baudry, Z., 53, 260). (Thiele, Chi., 20, 404).
with
Lime
and
Aluminum
Acetate
(D. Z., 33
912). 44.
Sodium
with
Phosphoric Acid
Phosphates
or
(Stein
Crosfield, Z., 53, 1384).
and 45.
Hyposulphite
Hyposulphites
of
the
Alkaline
Price, 1849, in Woodcroft, 46.
Hydrosulphurous
47.
Ammonium
48.
Sodium
49.
Calcium
Acid
Earths
and
Magnesia
(Reece
and
106).
(Ranson,
Oe., 26, 737).
Hydrosulphite (Descamps, S. ind., 65, 673). Hydrosulphite (Thiele, Chs., 20, 404; Schiller,Z. B., 22,
683).
Hydrosulphite
with
Barium
Hydrate
(Descamps
S. ind., 65, 673^ 50.
Hydrosulphite
of
Calcium,
Barium
Strontium
or
(Descamps,
S.
ind.. 65, 673).
6},.Magnesium 52. 53. 54.
Hydrosulphite (Becker, Z., 36, 978). Hydrosulphite (Urbain, S. ind., 50, 31). Zinc Hydrosulphite (Urbain, see above). Salt of Zinc Double Hydrosulphite with Sodium Cadmium
Bromide
and
Ammonium
Chloride
or
Fluoride
Chloride
(Harding,
S. ind., 66. 742). 65.
Iron
56.
Aluminum
57.
Hydrosulphite
58.
Hydrosulphurous
or
Manganese
Hydrosulphite (Descamps,
Hydrosulphite of Alumina
Acid
and
(Descamps,
see
S. ind., 65, 673).
above).
(Becker, Z., 36, 978). Phenol
or
(Kowalski, Z., 55, 396).
534
II. 69.
OP
SUBSTANCES.
Acidb,
Coicpoundb
INDEX
Its
Phobprorub;
Sulphide
Phosphorufl
60.
Phosphoric
61.
Sodium
62.
Potassium
63.
Ammonium
64.
Sodium
65.
Calcium
Acid
(Hlavati. Chs.. 27. 254).
Z., 9, 433).
(Stammer,
Phosphate
DBBXTATiyBS
and
(Kuhlmann,
Phosphate
Z., 2, 130).
(Blanchard,
B., 6, 153).
(Kuhlmann,
Phosphate
Amer.
Beanei,
Z., 2, 92;
1862).
patent,
Calcium
(Ozland,
Phosphate
Z., 3, 292).
(Gwynne,
Phosphate
Z,, 2, 130; Ostermann,
S. ind., 40,
698). J56. Barium 67.
Phosphate
Strontium
(Hcffter. Oe., 22, 71).
Phosphate
68.
Magnesium
69.
Phosphate
70.
Acid
71.
Acid
(Heffter,
(Kessler, Z., 15, 525).
Phosphate of Alumina
Ammonium
(Oxland,
Z., 2, 130).
(Packert, S. ind., 25, 25).
Phosphate
Ammonium
''
above).
see
Barium
with
Phosphate
Hydrate
(Chameroy,
S. ind., 51, 173).
72.
Acid
Calcium
(Richter, 1834. Z., 44. 446; Schott, N.
Phosphate
Z.,
14. 314). 73.
Acid
Calcium
74. Acid
with
Phosphate
S. ind., 52, 468). Calcium
Calcium
Bisulphite (Barthel^my,
I Sulphate
Phosphate with,Magnesium
(Kessler, Z., 15,
51). 76. Acid
Barium
76.
Acid
Magnesium
77.
Acid
Phosphate
78.
Calcium
79.
Superphosphate
Phosphate
J. Fabr., 29,
(Manoury,
Phosphate
(Oxland,
of Alumina"
Superphosphate
24).
(Kessler, Z., 15, 51).
(Maguin,
of Alumina
Z., 2, 130).
J. Fabr., 29, 23).
1857, in ling-Roth.,
(Daubeny,
23;
Stubbs, 61. Ass., 9, 912). 80.
Commercial
81.
Tribasic
Superphosphate Caleium
82.
Tribasic
83,.,Tribasic
also with
Phosphate,
S. ind., 25, 25).
Z., 34, 1269).
(Casamajor,
Calcium
Phosphate
with
Calcium
Phosphate
with
Alum
Tpbasic
(Packert,
(Kessler, Z., 15, 51).
Phosphate
Ammonium
Z., 12, 193). 84.
Acid
Sulphurous
-
(Leplay,
^
of Alumina
Phosphate
with
Sulphurous
.Acid
(Paekert,
S. ind., 25, 25). 86.
Manganese
86.
Metaphosphoric
87.
Sodium
88.
Sodium
Phosphate
Acid
(Lefranc, S. ind., 58, 410).
(Bielmann,
S. C,
28, 386;
MoUer,
S. ind..
47, 410). Woodcroft, 89. 90.
Metaphbsphate
Calcium
Young,
1836, in
59).
Calcium
Phosphorous Phosphite of
and
(Gwynne
Pyrophosphate
Acid Alumina
(Gwynne
and
(Hlavati, Chs., 27, 254).' (Spence, Z., 31, 231).
Young,
see
above).
Phosphites and
91.
Aeid
92.
Phospho-9ulphites
535
SUBSTANCES.
OF
INDEX
Sulphites (Kahnel,
Mailctb.,
Prager
1888
168). Grobert, 93.
III.
of the Alkalies
Alkaline
Earths
and
(I^angey
(Hlavati, Chs., 27, 254).
Acid
Hypophosphorous
Thdib
Cabbon,
Silicon,
BoBON,
and
S. ind., 54, 425). -
Compounds
Acids,
'
"'
Db*
and
BIVATIVBS.
94.
Boric
Acid
(Payen,
95.
Boric
Acid
with
96.
Boric
1828, in Weber
Sulphur
Powder
I, 565). and
(Fancher
Clarke, Bl. Aas., 9,
912). Acid
and
Z., 30, 533;
of
Borates
Earths
Alkaline
the
(Oppermann,
Brear, B.. 15, 1224).
97.
Ammonium
98.
Borax
99.
Hydrofluoboric
(Besson, J. Fabr., 43, 1).
Borate
(Brear, B., 15, 1224).
(Hlavati, Z., 52, 758).
Fluoride
100.
Silicon
101.
Siheic
102.
Silicic Acid
(Hlavati, Z., 53, 256).
Acid
(Leuchs III, 86, 1836),
Acid
(Kieaelguhr), (Heddle. and
103.
Kieselguhr
104.
Hydrated
105.
Potassium
106.
Sodium
107.
Polysilicates of Magnesium
Silicic Acid
Silicate
with
(Wagner,
108.
Zinc
109.
Silicate of Alumina,
110.
of Alumina,
Silicate
(Schubarth,
Silicate,also Silicate
Oe., 16. 441).'
(Soxhlet, Z., 43, 972).
Saw-dust
(Hlavati,
Gypsum
(Sohott, D., 251, 91).,
Z., 9. 331). and
Aluminum
(Hlavati, Chs., 28, 1180).
above).
see
e.g..
Z:, 2, 92).
Brick
(Maumen6,
Dust
e.g.. Brick
Dust,
with
textbook).
Caustic
Lime
(Breyea"
Z.. 54, 1271). 111.
HydrofluosiUcio Schoonjans,
112.
Hydrofluosilicate
Ammonium S. C,
(Kessler, Z., 16, 760; Chz., 30, 382). Acid
(IJills,N.
Gin,
Z., 46, 627;
Z., 39, 115;
Whiteman,
1903, 565). Hydrofluosilicate with
113.
Ammonium
114.
HydrofluosilicicAcid
Calcium
with
Lime
(Hlavati, Chz., 28, 1110).
Carbonate
(Marix,
Bl^
1869,
346). 115.
Magnesium
116.
Zinc
117.
Lead
(Kessler, Z., 16, 760). (Rividre, Bi. Aas., 25. 603).
Hydrofluosilicate
Hydrofluosilicate Hydrofluosilicate
(Vivien, Bl. Ass., 8. 24;
Sokol, Ohs.,
21,
R., 68). 118.
Basic
Lead
119.
Aluminum
120.
Iron
Salt
of Hydrofluosilicic Acid
Hydrofluosilicate
Hydrofluosilicate
(Hlavati, Chz., 28, 1180),
(Rividre, J. Fabr.. 49, 18);
(Lefranc, Z.. 41, 498;
Drost
Patent,
54,
372). 121.
\
Hydrofluosilicic Acid
Powdered
Iron
or
Aluminum
(Mertens,
S. ind., 63, 659).
Hydrofluosilicate (Kessler, Z., 16, 760).
122.
Manganese
123.
HydrofluosiHcate of HydrofluosilicicAcid
124.
with
Alumina with
(Kessler, Z., 15, 625). Alumina
(Gin, S. ind., 46, 48).
536
INDEX
125.
Carbomc'Acid
126.
Potaaaium
SUBSTANCES.
OF
(BarrudU,
Carbonate,
Leuolia, 1836, III 86).
1811; Oe., 23, 946; alao
(Freimd,
Earth
Fuller's
with
1827,
Getch., 369). Carbonate
127.
Sodium
128.
Sodium
129.
Ammonium
^eber.
Ill
130.
Acid
131. 'Acid
568).
Potassium
Carbonate
Carbonate
Carbonate
(Perier and
Sodium
Carbonate
with
Acid
133.
Potaaaium
IV.
Htdboobn,
Carbonate
Ammonium
Nascent
(Bismer,
135.
Hydrogen
Peroxide
136.
Hydrogen
Peroxide
(Stein and 137.
and
Hydrogen
139.
Oxygen
140.
Oxonised
Thbib
Acids,
Lead
Zinc,
with
Hydroperoxide
or
Z., 48, 140).
or
Alkaline
Phosphates
Crosfield, Oe., 28, 181). wjth Phosphoric Acid
and
Magnesia
(Pechnik
in Z., 25. 127).
Bdgel
138.
(?),).
1830
NiTBOGBN,
(Frank, Z.. 11, 302). with Phosphoric Acid
Peroxide
Hydrogen
about
Dbbivatives.
and
fromi
(Manoury,
.
Oe., 38, 534).
HALOosNa,
Hydrogen,
Manganese
Z.,
(Salisbury, Z., 64, 849).
(Dubrunfaut,
Percarbonate
Oxtokn,
Possoi, St. J., 1863, 350)
Alum
Compounds 134.
211),
Nind,
I. 566;
1828, in Weber,
(Payed,
Sodium
132.
in Woodcroft,
(Richard, 1856,
Z., 9, 430).
Stammer,
1, 595;
in
(?), OAmandot
about. 1830
(Dubrunfaut,
Peroxide
Black
Bone
and
S.
(Reboux,
Gas
(Ranson,
ind., 36, 150;
Oe.,'26, 737). S.
Wayland,
C.
1893.
611). (Schneller and
Air
Wisse, S. ind., 39, 467).
141.
Air
142.
Osone
Air (Steffens, S. ind., 72, 214). Osonised (Beans, 1866, in Woodcroft, 392; Lee, B., 2, 64).
143.
Osone
with
144.
Osonised
145.
Osone
146.
Osone
and
Chlorine
Soda
and
(Brin, Engl. Patent,
2297).
(?) (Lewicki, Z., 54, 245).
Chlorine ft
^^
with
Sulphurous
Acid
Chloride
of Lime
and
Barium
Hydrate
(Verley, S. ind.,
53, 301). with
and
(Brin, ^ngl.
Alumina
Pate"t,
2297).
147.
Chlorine
148.
St. J., 1882, 274). Siemens, 1859, Z., 44, 458; Duncan, Liquefied Chlorine (Reboux, S. ind., 36, 150).
149.
Chlorine
with
Carbonic
150
Chlorine
with
Acetylene (Carlee,
151.
Chlorine
with
Ethylene
152.
Hydrochloric 761;
Gas
(Strathing and
Acid
Hydrochloric
Acid
with
Hydrochloric
Acid
with
155.
Ammonium
Chloride
Z.. 84. 94; 157.
Sodium
Z., 49, 370;
Z., 1, 258;
(Bismer, Oe., 38, 532). D.
Z., 33. 738). II. 2, 49).
(Kitaee, S. C,
(Margueritte,
153.
Potassium
1820,
S.
ind., 8, 71;
Kessler, Z., 16,
Erk, Z., 26. 288).
154.
156.
Acid
Smit,
Metallic Alum
Powders
(Thide,
(Macfadyen,
(Hlavati, Z., 52, 758).
Chs., 20. 404). 1830,
Gesch.,
Licht, St. J., 24, 415).
Chloride Chloride
(Macfadyen, (Nash,
1830. Gesch.. 423).
1852, in Woodcroft.
151).
423;
Reboux,
537
StmSTANCBS.
OF
mDBX
Acid
(Z., 1. 255;
Acid
Anhydride
Oe., 34. 532).
Bismer,
160.
HypochlorouB Hypochlorous Hypochloritea
161.
Hypochlorites of Alkaline
162.
of Alumina Hypochlorite^
163.
Bromine,
164.
Hydrofluoric Acid
165.
Ammonium
Fluoride
Ammonium
Fluoride
with
Fluoride
(Kessler, S. ind., 1. 363). Abraham,
158. 159.
S. ind., 35, 549".
S. ind., 66, 517;
(Dobler,
Alkalies
of
(Lagarigue,
Hafner,
Oe.,
37, 86).
(Herapath, 1862, in Woodcroft,
Earths
320). (used in England
S. ind.,
(Maumend,
about
1880).
18^, 577). Schoonjans,
Z., 15, 43;
(Frickenhaus,
Chi., 29,
889). 166. 167.
Magnesium
168.
Calcium
(Besson,' Chs., 27, 863, Barts, 125). Aluminum (Voss. Z., 50. 438). C.
(Kessler, S. ind. 1, 363;
Fluoride
Z., 11,
886).
Oxide
Nitrous
169.
(Melsens,
1849,
D.
Z., 25, 1360;
Hlavati, Chs.. 28,
1180). Acid
Nitrous
170.
1849. Nitrites
171.
(Drapies,
in Woodcroft, of
in
and
Alkalies
the
Blachette-Zoega, 1833,
264;
Newton,
111). Alkaline
Earths
(Decastro,
Z., 29,
270). Nitric
173.
Calcium
174.
Potassium
V.
(Kessler, Z., 16, 61).
Acid
172.
Nitrate
(Macfadyen.
Alkalinb
Alkalixs,
Ammonia
(Nash,
176.
Ammonia,
also
177.
Ammonia
175.
Z.. 29, 270).
(Decastro,
Nitrate
1852.
with
with
Eabths, in
Gesch.. 423).
1830;
and
Woodcroft,
Caustic
Lime
Magnesium
or
Thkib
152;
(Marot,
Compounds.
Michaelis. Z., 2, 448). B., 9. 643).
Alulninum
Sulphate
(Hlavati,
S. ind.. 65. 673).
with
178.
Ammonia
179.
Ammonium
180.
Caustic
Oxalic Acid (Hlavati, Z., 56, 300). Sulphide (Bandris, 1853, in Ling-Roth. with
Potash
ash) about
Alkali
Carbonate
in Egypt,
700
Gesch., 134
and
.
181.
Potassium
182.
Sodium
183.
Calcium
184.
Caustic 134
Sulphide
Peroxide Lime
Sulphide and
(Margueritte
acetate
and
or
Sodium
and
107).
(partiallycausticated (Bandris,
Maumen6,
plant *
287). see
179).
Z., 28, 845).
(Hlavati. Chs.. 27, 254). Lime
Hydrated
(in Egypt
about
700, Gesch..
287).
185.
Calcium
Hydrate
with
Soda
186.
Calcium
Hydrate
with
Gypsum
187.
Calcium
Chloride
188.
Chloride
of Lime
(Beuster, J. Fabr.. 32, 2). (Nathusius,
(Balling. 1837. Z.. 44, 452; (Brandes,
1824, Z
,
in Bley. 75).
Michaelis. Z., 2, 65).
44, 447, Z.. 7. 423).
538 of
SUBSTANCES.
OF
INDEX
Lime
180.
Chloride
190.
Calcium
Chloride
191.
Calcium
Carbonate
(Maumen^,
192.
Calcium
Carbonate
with
193.
Calcium
Bicarbonate
194.
Calcium
Nitrate
195.
Calcium
Sulphate
196.
Calcium
197.
Calcined
Sulphate Gypsum
198.
Calcium
Acetate
199.
Calcium
Borate
200.
Calcium
Sulphide
(Drapies
Sulphide
with
with
(Hafner
Acid
Sulphurous
and
Bismer,
Oe., 37, 199).
Woodcroft,
201.
Calcium
Lime
with
J. Fabr.,
Milk
of Lime
Sulphate
(Howard. Leyde,
23;
17, 22).
(Dabrowski,
Gesch.,
Z., 1, 378;
368;
Druke,
Lime
(Kassner.
with
Lime
(Leisy, D.
D.
1816.
in
D., 196, 83).
Duquesne,
with
106).
(Pape, Chi.. 12, 30).
of Alumina
1810,
Z., 50, 615).
in Woodcroft,
an(l Price, 1849,
(Reece
with
(Guignard, Z., 53, 446).
Magnesia
or
Z., 29, 2151).
Z., 33, 919).
(Barth, 1832, Z.. 44, 449;
St. J.. 8, 334)
Durieux,
(Klein, B., 9, 1433). in
BUchette-Zoega, 1833, 264). Magnesium Sulphate (Drummond, D.. 203,
325). 202.
Calcium
Persulphide (Talamo,
203.
Calcium
Sulphuret
204.
Polysulphurets
205.
Calcium
206.
Barium
and
and 207.
Carbide
Oxide
Price, 1849, in Woodcroft,
or
Calcium
Sulphide
with
106). Ammonia
Acid (Hlavati, S. ind., 72, 487). (Rividre, Bl. Ass.. 15, 583).
Hydrate
J. Fabr.. 14, 34;
(Lagrange.
Du
Beaufret
Z., 40, 590).
Manoury.
Barium
(Reece and Calcium
of
Sulphurous
S. iiid.,40, 57).
with
Hydrate
Oxide
Ammonium
Phosphate
(Lagrange.
J. Fabr., 14. 34). 208.
Barium
Oxide
Hydrate
with
Soda
209.
Barium
Oxide
Hydrate
with
Iron
210.
Barium
Peroxide
211.
Barium
Peroxide
212.
Barium
Peroxide
213.
Barium
Chloride
(Licht, B., 15, 1471).
214.
Barium
Chloride
with
215.
Barium
D.
(Beaudet, with
(Oppermann, Vitriol
Z.. 40, 592).
(Curely, S. ind., 43. 361).
Z., 18, 1824). Acid
Phosphoric
(Stein and
Crosfield, Z.,
53, 1334).
Hydrate
Carbonate
Weisberg,
(Ranson,
Caustic
(Seyferth
Soda
S. ind., 47.
(Plique, D.
Z.. 25. 611;
251). Z., 2, 51).
Heffter, Oe.. 22, 71;
S. ind., 64, 429).
^
216.
Barium
217.
Barium
218.
Barium
219.
Barium
Carbonate
with
Sodium
Phosphate
and
Sulphurous
Acid
(Packert. S. ind., 25, 25). Carbonate
with
Sulphate
with
Potassium
of Alumina
(Eisenstuck, St. J.,
3, 244). Carbonate
Permanganate
(Talamo,
N.
Z.,
29, 210).
Sulphate with
Barium
Chloride
and
Lime
(Haesendonck,
S. ind., 43, 598). 220.
Barium
Sulphide
and
106; Weisberg, 221.
Barium
682).
Sulphide
with
Sulphuret (Reece and
Price, 1849. in Woodcroft,
S. ind., 64, 429). Caustic
Soda
-
(Romigui^res, S.. ind., 26b
540
INDEX
VI.
SUBSTANCES.
OF
MSTALS
ThBIB
AND
254.
Aluminum
Dust
(HanBon,
255.
Aluminum
Dust
with
256.
Aluminum
Dust
with
Ammonium
Dust
with
Hydrofluoric
CoMIOUNDS.
Chs., 21, 1033).
Alkalies
(Ranaon,
above).
see
BL
Sulphite (Beason,
Asa., 19,
800). 257.
Aluminum
258.
Alloys, also with
Aluminum
Acid
or
or
Zinc
Hydrofluoailicic Acid
Z.. 54. 118).
(Mertens,
Copper
(Bessen, Chs.,
Dust
28. 529). Chloride
259.
Aluminum
260.
Aluminum
261.
Aluminum
262.
Alumina
263.
Hydrate
264.
Colloidal
265.
Fuller's Earth
266.
Sodium
267.
Aluminate
268.
Calcium
(Nash.
Woodcroft,
in
1852,
Heffter,
151;
Oe.. 22, 71). with
Chloride
Lime
(Siemens. St. J., 18, 256).
(Kessler, Z., 15, 525).
Fluoride
(about 700
in Egypt,
Gesch., 135 and
Murray,
295;
about
1802. Gesch.. 368).
(Howard,
of Alumina
Alumina
Z., 2, 9^.
Gesch., 368;
1810.
(Lowig, Z., 29, 905).
(Fritsche. Z., 35, 361).
Aluminate
also
with
Acid
Sulphurous
Bl.
(Besson,
Ass.,
25, 733). of the
269.
Basic
Calcium
270.
Tetra-
and
Aluminate
of
Strontium
or
with
Barium
Aluminate
273.
Barium
Aluminate
274.
Barium
'
Calcium
of
Barium
or
(Gin
Ass., 16, 707). Bl.
Rembert,
1861;
51. 908,
Aluminate
Barium
272.
(Plicque, Bi Z., 2, 51).
(Gui, Z.. 46, 202).
Hexa-Basic
Aluminate
Earths
(Oxland, Z., 2, 92).
Leleux, Bl.
and 271.
Alkaline
Aluminate
French
Patent,
Ass., 20, 747).
Ammonia
with
(Jacquemart, Alum
(Geistodt, Z., 28, 843).
Acid
Sulphurous
(Jaluaot, S. ind., 63,
690). with
Aluminate
275.
Magnesium
276.
Sulphite
277.
Sulphate
Alumina
of
Aluminum
Sulphate
(used about
Aluminate
1888;
(Jaluxot,
above).
see
Hlavati, S. ind., 65, 674).
(Kessler, Z., 15, 525;
Miv"6,
with
(Stein and
1860,
Z., 44,
458). Alumina
of
Phosphoric
Acid
(I?h"sfield,
Oe., 28. 183). 278.
Basic
Sulphate
of Alumina
(Hunt,
Z., 30, 361;
Branjes,'D. Z., 25,
19). 279.
(about 700
Alum
des
Fabrik. Alum
with
281.
Alum
with
282.
Alum
also with
Aluminum
284.
Tartrate
285.
Oxalate
Zuckers," and
Lime
Gesch., 135;
Alcohol
Sulphate
Acetate
Hermbstaedt.
"Anleit.
a.
Berlin. 1811. 86).
Carbonate
Sodium
280.
283.
in Egypt,
(Salisbury, Z., 54, 1274). (Derosne,
(Oxland,
1850,
Oc.. 23. 048).
(Howard,
of Alumina
*
1812, Z., 44, 446).
in Ling-Roth.,
121 ; Schub"rth,
Z., 2, 92). of Alumina of Alumina
99, 482; 286.
Alminum
287.
Aluminum
Dumas, Phosphate
(Dumas,
C. Z., 1906,
939). (Sievier, 1847, in Woodcroft,
94;
C. Z.. 1906, 939).
(Oxland, Z., 2, 92, and
Silicate (Maumen^,
Lehrbuoh).
2, 130).
Miaihe, D.,
288.
Aluminate
28(i. Iron-
Silicates (Gans,
and
Z., 57, 206).
Quarts-Containing
Clay
290.
Aluminum Ferrous
292.
Iron
Hydroxide,
also
293.
Iron
Sesquioxide
also with
Osone
294.
Iron Sesquioxide
Hydrate
(Wackernie,
Sulphide
Iron Peroxide
296.
Iron
Ochre
297.
Iron
Chloride
Iron
300.
Ferrous
301.
Iron
302.
Ferric
303.
Basic
with
(Reynolds, (Martineau,
Licht, N. 299.
(Hlavati. Chz., 27, 254). (Hills,1850, in Woodcroft, 121).
Oxide
295.
Ferrous
Z., 22, 1104).
D.
(Harm.
291.
298.
541
SUBSTANCES.
OF
INDEX
Gypsum
(Rousseau,
Z., 11, 671). Chx., 19, 1519).
(Wayland,
S. ind., 47, 215).
1859, in Woodcroft, 250). 1815, in Woodcroft, 21).
(Sievier, 1847, in Woodcroft,
94;
Krai, Z., 18, 317;
Z., 11, 63).
Chloride
(Maumen^,
Oxy-chloride Carbonate
1895, 577).
Schachtrupp,
(Junius and (Reynolds,
Sulphate Ferric
and
(Spunt
Fluoride
S. ind"
Gouthi^re,
Z., 30, 216).
Chz., 25, 603).
1859, in Woodcroft,
(Sievier, 1847, in Woodcroft,
Sulphate
N.
250).
94; Krai, Z., 18, 317).
(Mehrle, Z., 32, 385).
304.
Ferrous
305.
Iron
306.
Iron
307.
Iron
Sulphate (Bayvet, Z., 10, 256; Mehrle, Z., 32, 385). with Alkaline Earths (Curely, S. ind., 43. 361). Vitrol with Barium Hydrate (Beaufret, Bl. Ass., 10, 803). Vitrol with (Lohmann, Gypsum 1817, Z., 44. 447).
308.
Iron
Vitrol
with
Zinc
309.
Iron
Vitrol
with
Albuminates
310.
Iron
Nitrate
311.
Salts
of Ferric Acid, so-called
Vitrol
(Schetke, Chz.. 1906. 23).
(Krai, Z.. 18. 317). (Sievier. 1847. in Woodcroft, 94). and
Cyanide
Iron
313.
Potassium
Ferrocyanide
314.
Potassium
Ferrocyanide
315.
Calcium
316.
Chromium
317.
Chromic
Acid
Sulphurous
312.
Archiv., 1903,
"Ferrites"
1892).
Z., 50, 957).
(Sievier, 1847. in Woodcroft. 94). also
with
Sulphurous
Acid
(Boot, Java
1046).
Ferrocyanide (Therry, 1833, Peroxide Acid
(Liesenberg, about
(Thompson,
in
Woodcroft, 54).
(Piettre, Bl. Ass., 19, 1381). Salts of Chromic
and
Acid
(Maumen^,
S. ind., 1895,
57). 318.
Acid
Chromic
Salts
Acid
(Maumen6.
see
above).
(Lefranc. S. ind.. 58, 410).
319.
Chromium
Sulphate
320.
Chromium
Phosphate
321.
Manganese
Dutft
(Spreckels. Chz., 28, 1270). (Eachran,
with
Manganese
Oxide
323.
Manganous
Oxide
324.
Manganese
Dioxide
322.
301;
(Lefranc,
Acids
(about
ind,,51, 103).
D., 251, 91).
Frickenhaus, Z.,
10
Piettre. Bl. Ass., 19, 1351). Chloride
(Manoury,
326.
Manganese
with
327.
Manganese
Carbonate
328.
Manganese
Sulphate
329.
Manganates Woodcroft. Sodium
S.
.
1836. Biey, 47;
Chloride
330.
above)
(Manoury,
Manganese
325.
see
of the
about
Oxalic
1880).
Acid
(Fontenille, S. ind., 54, 425). (Newton, 1859. in Woodcroft, 253). (Mass^. Z.. 10, 256).
Alkalies
and
Alkaline
Earths
(Hawes, 1853, in
163).
Manganate
(Knaggs,
1866, in Woodcroft.
384).
542
of Lime
331.
Manganate
332.
Potassium
333.
Sodium
334.
Calcium
335.
Aluminum
336.
Permanganates
Lefranc, Bl. Asa., 18, 962).
(Z., 1, 256;
Permanganate
(Maumen^,
J. Fabr., 1894, 51).
(Knaggs, 1866,
Permanganate
N.
SUBSTANCES.
OF
INDEX
384).
(Fayolle, S. ind., 52, 554).
Permanganate
(Fayolle,
Permanganate with
in Woodcroft,
Barium
see
above).
Carbonate
and
Oxalic
Acid
(Talamo,
Z., 29, 210).
337.
Copper
338.
Lead
with
Sulphate
339.
Lead
with
340.
Lead
Oxide
341.
Plumbic
Acids
Sulphides
of the
(about
Hydrate Wohl
468; 342.
Litharge
343.
Lead
344.
Plumbites
Lime
with
also
Dust
(Hlavati, Z., 56, 300). Alkalies
(Bandris, Ling-Roth,
107).
1836, Bley, 126). Z., 3, 392;
(Cwynne.
and
ind., 51, 103).
S.
(Manoury,
Z., 55,
KoUrepp,
S. ind., 1892,
Lagrange,
60.
(Pfeifer and
Langen, N. Z., 19, 131). S. ind., 1895, 577; Piettre, Bl. Ass.. 19, (Maumen6,
Peroxide
1351). Alkaline
of the
(Galloway, 1852,
Earths
in
Wcjodcroft,
147). 345.
Lead
(Hills, 1850, in Woodcroft,
Carbonate
121;
Besson,
Cbc., 28.
1270), 346.
Lead
Sulphate
347.
Lead
Nitrate
348.
Lead
Nitrate
349.
Basic
Lead
350.
Lead
Acetate
351.
Lead
Subacetate
352.
Load
(Scoflfern,1850, with
Woodcroft,
of Alumina
Sulphate
and
(Wohl
Nitrate
in
(Pape, Chz., 12, 30).
KoUrepp,
Z.. 55, 60).
(Scoffern, 1847, in Zerban, also with
Subacetate
115).
S. ind., 1892, 468).
(Lagrange,
Sodium
15;
Gwynne,
Z., 3, 392).
Sulphide (Maumen").
with
Chalk
with
Sulphurous
(Pajot
de
Charmes,
1321,
Gesch..
369). 353.
Lead
Subacetate
Ling-Roth, 354.
Lead
355.
Lead
81
and
and
(Gwynne,
Saccharate
(Scoffern, D.,
117,
in Woodcroft,
59).
265;
82).
(?) (Gwynne
Triacetate
Acid
1850,
Young, in
Woodcroft,
116;
Wohl
and
Z., 54, 854).
KoUrepp.
and
(Gwynne
Albuminate
356.
Lead
357.
Zinc
Dust
with
Mineral
358.
Zinc
Dust
with
Sulphuric Acid
359.
Zinc
Acids
Young,
(Manoury, and
1836, in Woodcroft,
S. ind.
Barium
59).
51, 103).
Sulphide
(Cripo,
St. J.,
24,416). Dust
with
Sulphurous
Acid, also with
Ferrocyanidefl
(Boot,
Oe.. 27, 717). 360.
Zinc
Dust
with
361.
Zinc
Dust
with
Tartaric
362.
Zinc
Dust
with
Alkalies
363.
Zinc
Dust
with
Dolomite
364.
Zinc
Dust
Hydro^uoric Acid
Acid
(Mertens,
"Koper8ki,
Z., 54, 118).
Z., 54, 1271).
(Ranson,
365.
Coppered
Chi., 21, 1033). (Hlavati, Bl. Ass., 16, 759). with Ammonium Sulphide (BrQnn, Chi., 31, R., 459). Zinc-Powder (Verley, Chz., 24, 596).
366.
Zinc
Iron
Alloys (Mertens,
367.
Zinc
Chloride
(Gauchy,
368.
Zinc
Fluoride
(Hlavati, Z.. 5^9*258).
Z.,.454,118). N. Z., 13, 43; Heffter, Oe^, 22, 71).
INDEX
"69.
Zinc
Oxide
OF
543
SUBSTANCES.
1836" Bley. 126).
(d^out
(Wilson, 1815.
370.
Zinc
Hydrstei
3?1.
Zinc
Hydrocarbonate
372.
Zinc
373.
Zinc
Gesoh., 368).
(Perrin, Chs., 22, 54; Mittelstaedt, D. Z., 23,
1112). with
Hydrocarbohate
Oxalic
Acid
(Moureaux,
BI.
Ass., 19,
1483).
Sulphate (Wilaon, 1818,
Bt"dt, in Weber, 374.
Zinc
with
Sulphate
in
Woodcroft, 27; Z., 44,447; Hermb-
1829, 100). Hydrate
Barium
(Wackemie,
S. ind., 53. 201
61, 718). 375.
Zinc
Nitrate
(Decastro,
St. J., 19, 340).
376.
Zin^ Nitrate
with
Alkali Sulphide
377.
Zinc
with
Calcium
Nitrate No.
see
(Decastro,
Sulphide
No.
see
Barium
or
375).
Sulphide
(Decostro*
375). (Hlavati, S. ind.. 65, 674).
Aluminate
378.
Zinc
379.
Cadmium
Oxide
380.
Cadmium
Carbonate
381.
Tin
382.
Stannic
Oxide,
383.
Stannic
Hydrate
384.
SUnnic
Bl. Ass., 19, 1483).
(Mouraux,
(Mouraux,
No.
see
379).
(Besson, Cha., 27, 863).
Dust
also
with
Soda
(B., 19, R., 520).
(Wilson, 1815, Gesch., 368). (Nash,
Chloride
in
1852,
Woodcroft,
Maumen6,
151;
J. Fabr., 20, 7). 385.
(Nash,
Chloride
Stannous
Zerban,
Manoury,
77;
1852,
No.
see
Z., 34, 1275;
384;
Havemeyer,
Maumen6;
S.
1869, in
ind., 1895,
577). with
Stannous
Chloride
387.
Stannous
Nitrochloride
388.
Stannous
Fluoride
389.
Stannic
390.
Stannous
391.
Tin
Nitrate
392.
Tin
Chloronitrate
393.
Stannic
394.
Stannates
395.
Stannates
386.
396.
(Ranson, (Anderson,
Sulphate
(Reynolds,
384).
1859, in Woodcroft,
(Reynolds,
1859.
of the
Alkalies
(Reynolds,
of the
Alkaline the
of No.
No.
1856, in Woodcroft,
Acid
or
see
Chz., 24, 1026).
Metastannic
Acid
see
1852,
218).
(Oe., 15, 76).
Sulphate
Metastannates
1859.
(Nash,
(Thiele, Chs., 20, 404).
Acid
Sulphuric
Earths Alkalies
250).
No.
see
^91).
(Reynolds, 1859,
sae
(Reynolds. and
1859, No.
1859,
Alkaline
see
No.
see
Earths
No.
Metastannate
(Rejmolds.
1859,
Alumintfm
398.
Mercury
399.
Mercuric
Nitrate
400.
Antimony
Dust
401.
Antimony
Tin
402.
Antimony
Peroxide
403.
Antimony
Sulphide (about li;70, CSesch., 31 1).
Peroxide
see
No.
(Piettre. Bl. Ass., 19, 1351). (S. C,
II. 4, 216.)
(Besson, Chs.. 27, 863). Alloy (Mertens, (Piettre, see
S. tnd., 63, 669). No.
398).
391).
(Reynolds,
391).
397.
391).
391).
391).
544 404.
Bismuth
Nitrate
405.
Bismuth
Salts
406.
Aii^.oniumMolybdate
407.
Salts
408.
Titanic
409.
Ferrititanite
410.
Thorium-
and
VII.
ObQANIC
SuB0TANCEa*AND
(Sievier. 1847, in Woodcroft.
Acid
1853, in Woodcroft,
(Hawes,
Tungstio
of
SUBSTANCES.
OF
INDEX
D.
(Wichardt,
Acid
(Reynolds,
(Liesenberg, about
103).
Z.. 31, 652).
in Woodcroft,
1859.
in England
(Employed
94).
about
259). }
1880).
1892).
Monasite-Earths
C.
(Browne,
COMPOUNDS;
Z.. 1904, 568)/^
BlACK
BONK
It8
AND
Substitutes. 411.
Extract
412.
Tannins
of
Gall-Apples (about
and
Tanning
III. 86;
1836; 413.
Quebracho,
414.
Tannic
Acid
Liquors and
(Wagner,
Gesch., 135).
in Egypt,
(Dorion,
1816, Z., 49, 578;
(Hlavati, Chs., 27, 254).
Sumach
Z., 9, 331;
1863, Z., 44. 459).
Walkhoff,
AVsid (?) (Elias, S. ind., 1895,
415.
Liquid
Tannic
416.
Tannate
of
417.
Tannic
418.
Tannic
419.
Tannic
Acid
wjith Alumina
420.
Tannic
Acid
with
421.
Tannic
Potassium
Leuchs,
Chs., 29, 1091).
Luther,
Valonea,
700
or
20).
| croft, 1853, in Wood-
(Galloway,
Ammonium
171). Aoid
with
Lime
Aeid
with
Salts
Heffter, Ge., 16,
(about 1836, Bley, 126;
442). of Barium
or
(Heffter,
Strontium
No.
see
417).
fluosilicic Aeid Acid
see
No.
417).
Acid, and
Metaphosphoric
Acid.
Hydro-
(Royers, S. ind., 50, 32).
with
Glue, Starch
422.
Pertannic
423.
Gallic Acid
(Royers,
424.
Gallate
Potassium
425.
Acetic
No.
see or
(Heffter,
Albumen
or
(7) (Meritens,
Acid
of
(Heffter,
Tartaric
see
No.
417).
Z., 28. 800).
Chs., 26, 972).
Kowalski,
420;
(Galloway,
Ammonium
1853,
No.
see
416). Acid
with
also
Sulphurous
S. ind., 51, 114).
Wernekinck,
Acid For
Stutser
(Z., 20, 741; look
acetates
under
and
the
list
metals. 426.
Wood
Vinegar
427.
Butyric
428.
Fatty
(Leidenfrost, Z., 20, 746). Acid
Sulphonic
Acids
with
(7) (Spreckels, Chs., 28, 1270).
Sulphurous
or
Acid
Sulphuric
(Spreckels,Z.
(Z.. 2, 91;
429.
Stearic Acid
430.
Ammonium
Stearate
431.
Stearic Acid
with
Wagner,
Z., 9, 331).
(Besson. Chs., 27, 863).
Sulphites of
the
Alkalies
or
Magnesium
Z., 57, 268). 433.
Stearic-Sulphonic Acid (Spreckels, see Palmitic-Sulphonic Acid (Spreckels. see
434.
Margaric
432.
ang.,
Chs., 28. 1072).
1902, 891;
Acid
No. No.
(Pidding, 1853. in Woodcroft
427). 427). 162).
(Stewart.
INDEX
435.
Oleic
436.
Oleic-Sulphonic
437.
Oxalic
Acid
(Pidding,
Acid
see
Acid
OF
SUBSTANCES.
No.
434;
(Spreckels,
Z., 8, 130),
Th^nard, No.
see
1836, III. 86;
(Lcuchs,
545
^
427).
l^isafeldt,
Z.. 9, 331;
Wagner,
Z., 21, 1102). 438.
Oxalic
439.
Ammonium
Acid
Magnesium
Ammonia,
with
Zinc
and
(Besson, Bl. Ass.,
18. 616). Oxalate
Woodcroft,
in
(Sievier, 1847,
Besson,
94;
J. Fabr., 43, 1). 440.
Oxalic
with
Acid
Carbonate
Barium
and
(Talamo,
Permanganates
Iff.Z., 29, 210.) 441.
Tartaric
(Possoz, Z., 23, 27; Stutzcr
Acid
and
S. ind.,
Wemekinck,
51, 114). 442.
Ammonium
443.
Malic
444.
Citric Acid
445.
Citric Acid, also with
Polysilicates (HIavati, Chs., 28, 1180).
446.
Salicilic Acid
Z.. 25, 640;
(Besson, Chs., 27, 863).
Tartrate
Acid
with
Metallic
Bases
or
Metallic
Bases
or
Carbonates
Bl. Ass.,
(Moureaux,
19, 1483). with
Carbonates
Bl. Ass.,
(Moureaux,
19, 1483).
417.
Resin
448.
Pimaric
449.
Pectic
450.
Formaldehyde
Acids
(Leuchs,
Acid
III. 86).
1836;
(Acar in Wagner's
12th
Technologic,
(Boulet. Chs., 20, 12;
Ed., 563).
Friedrich, Chs.,
27, 1183;
Bl. Ass., 25, 531).
Acetaldehyde
(Newton,
Z., 25, 1306;
D.
Z.. 9. 7).
D.
(Schiller,Z. B., 12, 33).
Acid
Simpson, 451.
(Hulwa,
1849, in Woodcroft,
111;
Melsens,
1849,
Boulet, Chs., 20, 12).
452.
Methylalcohol (Trobach,
453.
Alcohol
D. Z., 11, 1302). (Jennings, 1825, in Woodcroft, 33; Pesier, Z., 11, 522).
454.
Alcohol
with
Chlorine
455.
Alcohol
with
Acetic
456.
Alcohol
Gas Acid
with Hydrochloric (Ure, 1830, in Woodcroft,
457.
Alcohol
with
Sulphuric
458.
Alcohol
with
Sulphurous
459.
Alcohol
with
Alum
460.
Alcohol
with
Magnesium
461.
Rum
Gin
462.
Glycerine
463.
Glucose
464.
Saccharites. of
or
Z.. 14, 641;
Nitric
Acid,
Acid
or
19, 376).
Sulphuric Acid,
49).
Acid
and
Acid
and
St. J., 22, 274).
(Duncan,
(Paulet, 1837;
Gypsum
(Duquesne,
D., 196, 83).
(Stolle. D., 114, 305).
Lime
(Derosne,
1810, Oe., 23, 948).
Sulphite (Degencr,
(Stokes, in Weber,
Chz., 12, 174).
III. 236).
(Rabe, Z., 14. 124).
and
its Salts (7) (Bielmann,
Lead
of
or
1849, in Woodcroft,
106;
the
S. C,
Alkaline
Gwynne.
28, 386).
Earths
(Reese
Z., 3, 392;
and
Stammer,
Pric6. Z., 12,
336). 465.
Magnesium
Saccharate
466.
Starch
Caustic
467.
Hydrocarbons
and
468.
Kerosene
with
Ahimina
Oil
469.
Kerosene
470.
Tar
471.
Benzol
with
Acid
Petroleum and
Toluol,
(Kowalski.
1849, also
Z., 4, 31). 1848, in Woodcroft,
(Steinkamp,
(Spreckels and
Oils (Newton, or
(Galloway, Lime
Metallic
Kern,
Powder
Sulphurous
Z., 52, 909).
(Z., 53, 444).
Z., 53, 878).
in Woodcroft,
with
102).
(Carbonelle, S. ind., 33, 455).
111). Acid
or
Hydrosulphurou"
546
INDEX
SUBSTANCES.
or
Z., 21, 313;
Phenol
(Fishman.
473.
Phenol
with
474.
Plllnol with
475.
478.
Oxybenxol (Kowalski, see No. 471). also with Sulphurous Acid oi Ozynaphthalin and Oxyanthracene. Acid No. see (Kowalski, 471). Hydrosulphurous (Kowalski, see No. 473). Oxyanthraquinone with Fats Sulphurous or Sulphuric Acid (Spreckels, Z. ang., 1902,
479.
Tallow
472.
476.
477.
483.
Kern.
Bl. Ass., 10. 165).
Fatty
with
Sulphuric
or
(Spreckels
Acid
53. 878).
(Bouvier, Z. B., 1896,
Oils
Mineral
and
Oils
Sulphurous
Sulphuric Acid
or
386).
(Spreckels,
Z.
ang.,
891). with Soda
Oils
Fat
Neutral
and
Wax
Z., 55, 396).
(Kowalski,
(Menier,
Sulphurous
Z.. 55. 571;
Oils
Fatty
of Lime
with
Fatty
1902, 482.
or
Chloride
Lard
or
and
481.
Z., 9. 7).
D.
Petroleum
Chi., 28, 1072).
891;
480.
Benzol
484.
Spermaceti
485.
Stearine
232).
III. 86).
(Leucbs,
Oil
Spermaceti
and
1857, in Woodcroft.
(Brooman,
(Pidding,
1853,
in
Woodcroft,
162). (Carlee. D.
Palmatine
and
Sulphurous
Oil with
Sulphuric
486.
Fish
487.
Z. ang., 1902. 891). Oil with Sulphuric Acid Linseed
488.
Castor
or
Sulphuric Acid
Oil with
Z., 33, 738). Acid
(Spreckels, Z., 55, 571;
(Spreckels and
Kern,
Z., 53, 878).
(Spreckels. Z., 55, 571).
(Basset, Z.. 7. 381).
489.
Soap
490.
Ammonia
491.
Turpentine
492.
Turpentine and
493.
Tar
494.
Tar
Oil
495.
Tar
Oil also
Z., 8, 449;
(Brooman,
Soaps
(Newton,
Besson, J. Fabr., 43, 1).
1849. in Woodcroft,
111;
Carlee,
D.
Z., 33,
738).
.
Sulphuric
(Spreckels and
Acid
Kern,
Z., 53, 878;
55. 571).
Sulphurous
with
(Spreckels, Z.
Sulphuric Acid
or
ang.,
1902.
891).
496.
(Pidding, 1863,
1902.
Alumina
162).
and
Metallic
or
Sulphuric
Sulphurous
with
Oils
Tar
with
in Woodcroft,
Powders Acid
891).
497.
Resin
498.
Resin
162). (Pidding. 1853. in Woodcroft. Acid (Spreckels and Kern, and Sulphuric
499.
Pitch
(Pidding. 1853,
500.
Creosote
501.
Shellac
(Z., 53, 444). (Spreckels, Z. ang.r
(Newton,
see
No.
Z., 63, 878).
497).
1849, in Woodcroft,
111).
(Grieger, S. ind., 54, 23). Bisulphide (Ckiandi. S. ind., 25, 268).
502.
Carbon
603.
Mustard
604.
Radish
505.
Sulphur-Containing Ethereal
606.
Ethereal
(Leuchs, 1836, III, 86; Newton,
OU
1842, in Woodcroft,
111). OH
(Newton,
No.
see
Sulphurous Chi., 28, 1072).
Oils with
1902, 891;
1842,
Oils or
503).
(Spreckels. Chi., 29, 4307). Sulphuric Acid (Spreckels, Z. ang.,
548
INDEX
660.
Otteine
661.
Ferrocyanide
(Bninon
1817, in 652.
SUBSTANCES.
OF
and
Z., 54. 848).
Roth^;
'
Residues
Coal-setUiogs)
(So-Called
Woodcroft. 26; Gawalowski.
of Powder-Settlings
Stearin
(Cavaillon,
Oe.. 18, 718). and
(Lach
Factories
Benies, S. ind.,
1895, 20). 653.
Graphite with Bone
Black
and
Zinc
(Macherski and
Bloom
Eoper-
ski, Z., 57, 1121). 654.
Graphite with
Sand
Zinc
and
(Macherski
Powder
and
Eoperaki,
Z., 57, 1044). 566.
Anthracite
666.
Coal-Tar
667.
Carbonised
668.
Gravel
559.
Bauxite
560.
Calcined
561.
Cement
562.
Brick-Dust
563.
Pumice
564.
Talc
(Hlavati, Z., 66. 300). with
Lime
Scums
'
S. ind., 9, 56).
(Lemaire,
(Karlik, Oe., 32. 256).
(Bergmann,
Meyer. 1879. Z., 30, 1149).
1840, Z., 29. 1184;
(HlavaU.
Z.. 56, 300). Phosphate-Slag (Lachaux, S. ind.. 50. 677). D. Z.. 25, 1946).
(Harm, with
(Breyef. S. ind..65, 655).
Lime
1835. in WoodcroH, 66). (Hlavati. Chs., 28. 1180).
(Saunders,
Stone
Meerschaum
or
(HUvati, Chs., 28, 1180). Zeolite (Riedel, S. ind.. 70, 230).
565.
Mica
566.
Natural
567.
Permutite^
668.
Soil from
the Beet
569.
Hydrogen Osone
see
No.
(Kohlrausch.
Store-house
VIII.
570.
(Riedel,
Artificial Zeolite
566).
Z., 28, 216).
Substancbs.
Elbctbolttic
(Kugler, Chz.. 32; R., 454). Chs., 24, 825).
(Schollmeyer,
Iodine. Fluorine
(Spillem-Spitxer. Z.. 53, 244).
571.
Chlorine, Bromine,
572.
Sulphurous
573.
675.
Acid or Sulphites with Lead, Zinc, Aluminum, Z., 50, 625). (Baudry and Charitonenko, Hydrosulphurous Acid (Ranson, Oe., 26, 737). Coal (Despeissis,Battut, Z., 46, 624).
576.
Wood
577.
Alkaline
Earths
578.
Calcium
Carbonate
579.
Barium
Salts (Bonillaut. S. ind., 50, 189).
580.
Barium
Aluminate
(Lallement,
S. ind., 53, 301).
Tin
(Hlavati, Z., 53, 258).
Charcoal
(Gin and
Leleux, Z., 53, 627).
(Schwerin,
D.
Magnesium
(Urbain, Bl. Ass., 16, 719).
Magnalium
(Murphy,
583.
Magnesium
Hydroxide
(Schwerin,
584.
Magnesium
Carbonate
(Schwerin,
585.
Zinc Zinc
587.
Basic
J. Fabr., 44, 18).
Chz.. 28. 626). D.
(Schollmeyer, Z., 46, 624). Antimony or Alloy with Calcium Zinc
588.
Cadmium
589.
Lead
Salts
(Wohl
and
KoUrepp,
Z., 29, 451).
(Hlavati, Z., 53, 258). D.
Z., 27. 1280).
(Urbain, Bl. Ass., 16, 719).
(Javaux, Gallois, Dupont,
Lead-Antimonj* Nodon.
i
Bl. Ass., 20, 966).
(Rembcrt,
581.
586.
*
Z., 29, 451).
582.
590.
Iron,
Sulphurous or
574.
Acid
D.
Alloy
also
Z., 27. 1211).
with
Z., 46, 626). Manganese
Sulphaite(Piettre and
591.
Leftd
Ondefl
592.
Lead
Peroxide
593.'Xead
(Z., 46. 626).
Basic
595.
Aluminum
Lead
and
(Piettre
Saccharate
594.
549
SUBSTANCES.
OF
INDEX
Salts
BI.
Nodon,
(Wohl
and
KoUrepp,
(Wohl
and
Kollreppt
19, 1351).
Ass.,
D.
Z.. 27. No.
see
1280).
593).
(Z.. 46. 626).
596.
Aluminum-Masneaium
597.
Aluminum
Z., 53,
598.
Alumina
599.
Iron
600.
Iron
601.
Manganese-Silieon
602.
Manganese
Dioxide
603.
Hydrated
Manganese
Zino
with
Manganate
(Delavierre,
Z.
(Browne,
174).
1908,
ang.,
Hydroxide
Iron
or
Hydroxide
1106).
(Z., 46, 626).
(Jennings,
Clement.
1846,
in
1848.
Woodcroft,
89
and
Bl.
Ass.,
103;
Z.. 46, 625).
Maigrot,
Bisulphide
Chi..
(Aschermann,
(Hlavati.
Alloy
26; 683).
Z.. 53, 258.) '
Z., 53, 626).
(Hlavati, Peroxide
and
(Piettre
Nodon.
19,
1351). 604.
of
Manganates
Chromium
Alkalies
Peroxide
Nickel
607.
Nickel
608.
Copper
609.
Iron
Oe., 28,
(G5ri,
Bl.
(Horsin-D^on,
Ass.,
and
611.
Antimony
Peroxide
612.
Mercury
(Polaciek.
Bl.
613.
Mercury
Amalgams
(Polaosek*
6|4.
Mercury
Peroxide
615.
Easily-Fluid
616.
Silver
(Hor8tn-D6on,
617.
Silver
with
Platinum
No.
see
603).
162).
Sulphites
or
Nodon.
(Piettre
619.
and
(Bfiudry
and
Chari-
16, 729).
Antimony
Platinum
(LavoUay
Z.. 46. 624).
610.
618.
Earths
Z., 50, 625).
tonenko,
nenko.
Nodon,
Acid
Sulphurous
with
Alkaline
and
(Piettre
(Horsin-D6on,
606.
and
Z., 25, 330)"
D.
Bourgoin, "605.
the
(Piettre
and
Ass.,
(PieUre
Oe.,
No.
see
Ass.,
19. 1351). Z.. 54. 1030).
612). Bl.
Nodon. (Palms,
1211). Bl.
Gurwitsch.
16, 720;
Bl.
Ass..
Ass..
19. 1351).
17. 274).
28, 162).
Acid
Sulphurous
Nodon.
and
Alloys
Mercury
Z., 27,
D.
Sulphites
or
(Baudry
and
Charito-
Z., 50, 625).
(Collette, Z.. 46, 623;
Thomas
and
Howe,
S.
ind.. 66,
624).
and
620.
Alloy
Antimony D.
Nodon,
Platinised
Z.. 27,
Copper
Additions
621.
622.
Sebonaft Straw-Meal
-"Solid
(Lense.
also
with
S.
Pboov
dubimq
D.
Sulphate
(Piettre
1211).
(Charitonenko,
Mineral
Manganese
Oil"
ind., 53. 272).
Cobrbctionb.
(Nowakowski,
Z., 33, 937).
C.
Z.. 17, 277),
B5Q
ABBREVIAVIONS
OF
REFEaENCES.
ABBREVUTIONS
OF
REFERENCES.
Reference. CUaaaen-Barti's
Bftrii
^'Zuokerfabrikation**
(Leipsig,
1905). B
Beriehta
der
deutacben
ohenuBchem
Geaellichftft
(R"R"ferat6). Bl.
Bulleuin
BUneh"tte
''Manuel
ZoefE
de
(Paria, Bley's
Bley
Sooi6t6
U
da
ehimique.
fabrieant
du
et
raffinear
de
sucre'*
1833).
"Zuckerbereitung
RunkelrOben"
aua
(Halle,
1836). Bl.
Bulletin
Asi.
de
raMoeiation
Chf.
Che'miker-Zeitung
C.
r.
Comptee
C.
Z.
Centralblatt
fdr
die
Zuckerindustrie. Journal.
Zuckerinduatrie. "Gesohiohte
lippmann'a
Gesch.
(ReReperiorium).
polsrtechniaches
Deutsche
Die
Z.
D.
cbimistes.
rendus
Dingler'a
D.
des
dM
Zuckera"
(Leipaig,
1890). des
J. fabr.
Journal
Ling-Roth
Ling-Roth's
f abricanta
"Guide
"Traits
de
f dr
und
Ansichten*'
la
fabrication
d"
sucre*'
Rabensuckerindustrie.
Oesterreichisch-Ungarische
Oe.
Sugar"
1878).
Zeitschrift
Neue
Z.
of
1871).
Maumen6's
(Paris. N.
Literature
Erfihdungen
10,000
(NQmberg, Maumen6
the
1890). "
Leuchs
tu""e.
"^
(London, Leucha
de to
Zeitschrift
fQr
Zucker-
industrie.
Prager
Marktb.
Marktberieht.
Prager The
S. ind.
La
St. J.
Stammer's
Weber
Weber's
Wooderoft
Woodcroft's
sucrerie
indigene "
et
coloniale. der
Jahresbericht
"Zeitblatt
to
Z.
Cane.
Sugar
S.C.
fQr
Gewerbetreibende." of
"Abridgments (London,
Sugar"
SSeitschrift
des
Zuckerfabrikation.*'
Specifioations
ing relat-
1871). der
Vereins
Deutaohen
Zueker-
industrie.
Z. ang.
Zeitschrift
f ilr
angewandte
Z.B.
Zeitschrift
fdr
Zuckerindustrie
Zerbaa
Zerban's
Rouge,
"Louisiana
1908).
Chemie.
Bulletin
in
Bdhmen. No.
103
(Baton
INDEX.
A. "
Bach's
refraetomeier, 226.
Abbe
fermentation,
Acetio
of molaases,
fiber determination,
products,
Acids Acid
thin-Juice
cane
fuel value, 34.
138.
HarlofF,
process,
6.
Anthocyanin, Alcoholic Aoohol
fermentation, of
in
409.
products, 139.
cane
cream,
Alundum Ammoniacal
Bateile's
holders, 238. 141.
187.
methods,
based
Ash, calculations
upon,
normal,
error
Available
sugar,
weight
a
cane
199.
Char),
113.
purchase,
131.
power,
per
for cubic
analysis, 127. foot, 131.
and Books records, 337. Briz, degree, 191.
by
383.
Averaging,
305. of
"e"
109.
preparation
182.
basis
(aho
in analysis, 183.
paste,
acid, 182.
Aspartic
grain, 86, 119.
efficiency number^,
decolorising
254.
Asparagin, 5,
to
sugar
in analysis, 183.
254.
sulphated,
alarm, 296.
Bone-black
270.
277.
in sugars,
sugar
308.
270.
in massecuites,
294.
feed-water,
Boiling
254.
in molasses,
Boiler
Boiling-house
coefficient, 304. determination,
tube, 159.
analysis, 294. 348.
254.
carbonated,
39.
process,
observation
Blaclc-paste, analysis, 127.
79.
Analysis, optical methods, chemical
Bates'
Briz.
"ee
sirup, 120, 122.
Barrel
in limestone, 388.
gases,
288... 291.
171.
Balances, Balling,
crucible
282.
filters,63. 111.
414.
"determination
method,
Norris'
Bag
of molasses, 270.
samples,
determination,
sucrose
Alkalinity of massecuites, 270. Alumina
of
201.
sampling,
66. clarification,
284.
determination,
preparation
nitrogen, 250.
process
Alcohols
as
furnaces, 33. moisture
55.
Albuminoid
292.
filters,65.*
270.
in
283.
choppers,
270.
of maasecuites,
31, 302.
analysis, 282.
409.
Juice, 257.
of the
Acidity
40.
sulphitation prooen,
Bagasse,
juice, 301.
Absolute
"
dilution
and
spindling,
260, 262. 551
552
INDEX.
Brix. by spindlins* 193. hydrometer,
Brix-Dupont
Cellulan, 138.
102.
of milling and
By-products
430.
Cattle-food, analysis, 208.
101.
hydrometer,
Brix- Vivien
CBleuIation of volume^
Cask,
sion, diffu-
Centrifugals, 00. capacity, 100.
31.
dischargers, 100.
self-discharging,100.
C.
66.
separators,
Filter-press cake.
Cachaia,
"ee
Calcium,
carbonate
determination,
sulphide Calumet
Cane,
Char,
in limestone, 389.
sulphate in char, 128. in ohar,
sampler,
202.
influence
Charcoal,
cutting,
of sucrose,
of structure
control
6.
in milling,
matter,
purchase
7.
analysis,382.
or
National,
6.
Circle,
etc., 420.
of
Colloidal
water,
chemical
Cone,
double, 54.
area,
Copper,
50.
301.
estimation
Corallin Coral
53.
acid, determination
in
Wedderbum's
""foduction
240.
solution, 413. 73.
sand, composition,
Cross's
sucrose
method,
235.
Crystallisation in motion,
limestone, 391. acid, production carbonation,. 61.
434.
lime, 73.
tanks, 51, 60.
for
of
etc., 430.
method,
single, 50. Haan's,
quantity,
and
physical properties, 458.
268, 260.
formulae, 443.
Condenser-water,
Carbohydrates,
268:
solution, 413.
Concentration
140.
102.
sugars,
(Hersfeld), 266.
(Steuerwald),
fuel value, 35.
Carbonation,
raw
heating surfaces, 46.
Cochineal
inferential, 314.
tanks, 30. 47.
sugars,
method
4.
303.
in open
Clerget's constant,
weights, 313.
Carbonic
area,
of white
unloaders, 9.
Cane-trash,
defecation, 75.
Chlorophyll,
Cleaning
2.
in, 7.
transport,
Carbonic
for the
Classification
10.
content,
work,
310.
Clarification
Fiske's
analysis,
sugai^house
Circulating water,
200.
seedlings, 1. shredder,
of
Chitine, 138.
2.
on
sampling,
de
of
Chemicals
propagation,
113.
methods
187.
2.
23. mineral
for analysis, 127.
animal,
Chemical
after
distribution
115.
of efficiency, 130.
test
id.
11.
deterioration
alteration, 116. 114.
112,
preparation
5.
Krajewski,
solutions,
revivification, 115.
crusher, Fulton,
process,
and
washing,
composition,
sugar
covering, 113.
indirect, 216.
Caramel,
on
118.
filtrat on,
128.
analysis, direct, 214.
sugars
action
composition
1.
sucrose
circulators, 78.
Chapman's
in char, 130.
laboratory
04.
control, 06, 325.
in refining, 118.
553
INDEX.
CrystollitatioBof wiign, 85.
Excelsior
Crystalliser, 96.
Extraction
capacity, calculation. 345.
322.
F.
411.
paper,
Curing
by mills, calculations,
95.
masseouites, Curcuma
filters,64.
99.
sugar,
and
Cylinder, volume
area,
Feed-water,
430.
analysis, 294.
automatic
Tehling's
solution, 415.
Ferment, Deming's
Defecation,
process,
46.
tanks, 39, 43.
in open
Fiber,
Deming's
of
process
116.
defecation,
determination,
determination, 217. crude, in cattle-food,299.
Filter-press,66. washing,
137.
of
influence
on
exhausted,
206.
Worthington,
Filters, various
Flasks, cdso analysis, 294.
water,
Flue
Dupont Dry Dutch
412.
standards,
103, 278.
Sugar"fiasks,167.
83.
dry milling, 341. commercial
Formulas,
and
Ellipse,
area,
308.
glucose
Evaporation
for
303, 312.
Freeiing '*
Fuel,
juice heating,350.
juice,77.
mixtures, 470. fermentation,"
32.
vidue
of the
of bagasse, 34.
of cane-trash, 35. of molasses,
35.
calculation, 342. Evaporator,
a.
77.
cleaning, 81. tubes,
corrosion, 07.
calculations,
340.
Froth
429.
and
evaporation,
sugar-house
241.
Esters, 139.
Evaporating
342.
dihition, 340, 841, 448. in
42, 45, 46.
Entrainment,
sugar,
342, 443.
methods
determinations, Eliminator,
analysis, 395.
and
concentration
Electrolytic
65.
analysis, 294.
Formula,
E.
EflBciency number,
53.
types,
"ee
Folmaldehyde,
milling, calculations, 323. color
gases,
Foam,
341, 443.
paper,
67.
393.
sampling
Dilution, 305. formule,
67.
Filtration, 63.
25.
process,
68.
in carbonation,
(cachaaa), 70.
scums
juice, sampling,
68.
double, Filter-pressing,
201.
sampling,
disposal of
KeUy,
Sweetland.
chips, analysis, 282.
Diffusion
waste
subaeetate
lead 181.
rotation,
67.
juice, reclarification,70.
135.
Dextrose,
302.
cake, analysis, 280.
juice, 221. Deztran,
determination,
filters,65.
191.
spindling,260.
and
by dilution
bagasse,
cane,
45.
Denmty,
409.
292.
Weinrioh,
Desarboniser,
409.
Fermentation,
in refining, 109.
alarm, 296.
sugar
Glucose,
136.
in cattle
food, 300.
98.
554
IN]""X"
Invert
304. Glucose, coefficient,
electroljrticmethods
lead
of
sugar,
of analysis,
rotation, 181.
on
Meissl-Wein's
241.
methods,
gravimetric
Meissl-Hiller's methods
235.
table, 189.
preparation,^415 245.
calculation.
Meissl-Hiller
using
subaoetate
lodate Iron
determination, 129. limestone, determination
in
factors, 236. tions. solu-
precipitation in clarifying
413.
paper,
in char,
sulphide
181. 253.
,
388.eolorknetrio
method,
277.
ratio, 304. method,
volumetric
Sideraky's 251.
J.
Soldalni's
method,
solution, Soxhlet's
247.
416.
Juice 250.
method,
Violette's
method,
volumetric
method,
247.
in
grooves
weight,
mill-rolls,
Renton,
240.
347.
mixed
or
15.
315.
measurement. 120.
Hind-
16.
Messchaert.
5.
Granulators,
of the
extraction, 10.
reduction
Wedderburn's
Glutamin,
calculation
247.
methods,
analysis, 221.
diluted. 302.
purification, 38. preservation
H,
with
hyde, formalde-
83. of
study
Hasewinkle's
solidified
07.
molasses,
in
grooves
mill-rolls, 16.
undiluted. 301. weight. 315. 319.
lead
dry
Home's
201.
strainers, 24.
juice
Hind-Renton
sampling,
method
Jot
170.
sucrose,
Hydraulic
regulators
pressure
K.
for
mill-rolls,14, 16. acid, standard
Hydrochloric
tions, solu-
Kieselguhr,
417.
Hydrometers,
Kelly filter press,
68.
76.
102.
L.
corrections, 104,
temperature 480. 400.
for
Hydrosulphites
bleaching,
76.
Laboratory Lactic
fermentation,
Landolt's
I.
inversion
Immersion
gases.
sugar,
influence
227.
182.
see
of acids
method
subacetate, influence
*
Glucose, on
of
175. inating, elim-
170.
327.
tube, 162. also
Home's
70.
calculation,
observation Invert
dry, 235. acetate, precipitate^ volume error,
324.
refractometer,
Incondensible
Inversion,
Lead
10.
calculation,
400.
tube* 162.
polariscope, 148.
Laurent
Imbibition,
appliances, 171.
136.
rotation,
Home's on
preparation, 414. Levan,
138.
Levulose,
136.
dry, 170.
rotation, 170.
41
T!'
"Mtiinr
t
t.
.^.^".
*""-
s
Ur
557
INDEX.
Retention
number,
308.
Rheostat
for
in
uae
methods,
electrolytic
solution, 416. Solids
by drying. 264.
by refractometer,
331.
reports,
Soxhlet's 8.
Saccharetin,
iron, 6.
Specific gravity,
see
Saccharimetrio
analysis, limits
Folariscope. of
Sucrose.
"ee
Samplers,
automatic,
202.
Samples,
Stock-taking, Strainers
and
compositing
serving, pre-
207.
Sampling,
332.
Sucrose, 134. nitrate
contraction
'
200.
chips, 201.
contraction
of
211.
in
filters,64. in milling, 19.
of dilution, 347.
in sugars,
or
influence the
Silica in limestone, soluble, 387.
total, 387. Sirup, analysis, 259.
of
141.
lead
294.
subaoetate
on
rotation, 179.
of salts
the
on
rotation, 180.
pipette, 231. retention
"
definition, 302.
or
recovery
number,
308.
and
sampling,
molasses,
274.
in waste-water,
Fiske's
cane,
and
optical methods,
10.
measurement
massecuite
264, 266.
Separators, Settling tanks, 44, 46. National,
in
work, 70.
centrifugal, 66.
for
oxalic acid method,235.
in juice, 231.
67. filter-pressing,
Shredder
288.
214, 216.
factory tests, 265.
calculation, 324. disposal in diffusion
version, in-
cattle-food, 300.
Cross's
calculation
on
187.
in bagasse,
in cane,
212.
double
solutions
chemical
methods,
molasses, 211. sirup, 211.
Soums,
on
454.
determination,
massecuito,
Saturation
solutions
dilution, 261.
juice, 201.
Sand
test, 297.
of
filter-presscake, 208.
sugar,
268,
for juice, 24.
cobaltous
199.
diffusion
products^ 80.
cane
ct-naphthol test, 296.
bagasse, 201. cane,
of
269.
of, 207.
care
430.
Steuerwald-Clerget methods,
202.
Calumet,
determination,
boilers, 32.
Sterilisation
coefficient,304.
Saline
glucose
water, Landolt, 198. Sphere, surface and volume, Steam
134.
Saccharose,
for
197.
184.
Saccharon,
225.
tube
solution, 416.
Saccharimeter,
accuracy,
filter
tests, 244.
6.
with
reaction
247.
Solidified molasses, 97.
242.
acid solution, 413.
Rosalie Run
Soldalni's glucose method,
weight,
319.
Subacetate
211.
of
lead, Home's
dry,
179. .
Soda,
carbonate,
to
reduce
ing, scal-
influence
75. for neutralising, 74.
caustic, for neutralizing, 74.
Sugar
on
rotation, 179.
solution, 414. analysis, chemical 187.
methods,
558
INDEX.
analysiB, optical
Sugar
methods,
influence
Temperature,
141.
183. Tin
boiling, 86. methods, Sugar-cane,
salt
Total
90.
as
Cane.
*se
a
Carr-Sanbom
by 271.
by Josse's
flasks, calibration, 160.
by Pellet's
cleaning, 169.
notes
losses, calculations, 335. processes,
Trapetium, Trapesoid,
36.
101. of pure,
preparation rendment,
by
method,
222.
factory calculations, 340.
packing,
76.
drying. 222.
crystallised, estimation,
manufacture,
wash,
sugar
solids, determination
crystallisation, 118.
Sugar,
isations, polar-
on
382.
278:
method,
225.
method,
224.
methods,
on
428.
area,
428.
area,
Triangle,
area,
Turmeric
paper,
231.
etc., 428. 411.
Tyroein, 5.
refineries, classes, 106. V.
refining, 106. refractometer,
228.
Vacuum
212.
sampling,
pan,
solubility, 455, temperature
456.
control, 325. in
errors
ing, polaris-
184.
grades, 103.
trieffor sampling,
Viscous
Sugars, analysis, 274. Clerget's
fermentation,
409.
247.
solution, 416.
weights, 320.
fermentation, 409.
Vivien's for
coils,81.
Violette's glucose method,
212.
method
from
scale
Vinous
of low
treatment
224.
ovens,
85.
tube*for carbona-
control
tion, 56.
sucrose,
275. in the
134.
cane,
,
standard,
by Dutch
color
deterioration
Warehouse
278.
warehouses,
in
103. after
Louisiana
Water,
Wax,
Sulphur, analysis, 386, 397. acid,
in
Sulphurous in the Sweetland
and
solutions, 418.
char:
classification,103.
remarks,
47. 57.
fiber,determination,
Worthington following
for
balance, 194.
manufacture, Woody
Index.
decarbonizer
sugain
303.
List
customary
metric, 425.
White
filter-press,68.
"""
measures,
Westphal's
T.
Tables,
and
116.
acid, analysis, 386. defecation, 74.
Sweet-water,
diffumon, anidy-
5.
cane,
Weinrich's
limestone, 394. standard
in
feed, examination, 294.
Weights
58.
Sulphuric
of quality, 406.
waste,
boiler
Sulphitors, 58.
determination
diffusion,407.
for
sis,294.
47.
process,
105.
quality, 408.
liming, 49. 49.
process,
stoves,
Water-supply improvement
Sulphitation Bach's
for sugar,
67. filter-press, X.
this Xanthin
bodies,
140.
217.
TABLES
OF
LIST
AND
FORMULA..
CARBOHYDRATES. Chemical
and
Physical
Properties
of
the
Carbohydrates.
Principal
Ewell. 458.
CALIBRATION Calibration
of Flasks
Calibration
of Flasks
CorreclionB
for Use
OF
to
True
to
Mohr's
Solutions
Sugar Corrections
and
17|" C.
at
Cubic
or
True
451.
Centimeters,
BAVUk,
Baum4,
and
453.
Centimeters,
Cubic
DRY
the
452.
SUBSTANCE.
Specific Gravity
Brix
Temperature,
Ger-
Hydrometer.
'^
lach, 489. for
Corrections at
Density
Variations
C,
20""
of
Temperature
at
Various
Temperatures.
Refractometer.
Dry
Substance
by
Dry
Substance
by Refractometer,
Specific Gravity
and
Brix
Degree
at 20%** C., 497. Specific Gravity of Water
at
DILUTION Dilution
of Sulphuric
Evaporation Formuls
Tables.
Standard
Hydrometers
of the
Corrections.
(Per Cent
Various
438.
Geerligs, 494.
Sucrose) of Sugar
Temperatures.
Solutions
Landolt,
Anthon,
472.
Concentration,
and
Weight
and
Volume
of
a
443.
Sirup
to
a
Basis
of
30*
Spencer, 440. "
EXPANSION Alteration Coefficients
of Glass
198.
CONCENTRATION.
AND Acid.
Thiesen,
Geerligs, 492.
Spencer, 431, 433.
for Dilution
Reduction
for
490.
of Water
Vessels
of expansion
AND
of
482.
Stammer,
of
Variations
for
to
AND
Brix
VESSELS.
Centimeters,
Units
BRIX
Degrees
of
Comparison
Cubic
in Calibrating
DEGREES
DENSITY.
GLASS
CONTRACTION.
by Heat, 447. of Glass, Cubical,
447.
559
Baum^.
660
LIST
Contraction
TABLES
Cane-sugar
of
FORMULiB.
AND
Solutions
on
Inversion.
Gallois
and
Du-
454.
pont,
of
Contraction
Dupont, Volume
OF
Invert-sugar
Dissolving it in Water.
on
Gallois
and
454.
Solutions
of Sugar
Vaiioiu
at
Temperatures.
Gerlach,
454.
REAGENTS.
Impurities in Reagents Special Reagents
and
of Solutions
Strength
for Sugar
in Analysis, 422.
for Use
410.
Work,
SOLUBILITIES. in Sugar
Baryta Lime
and
Salts
in Sugar
Solutions.
Sugar
Strontia
!^elletand
Solutions.
in Sugar
Sidersky, 466.
in Alcohol.
Sugar
in Water.
Flourens, 455.
Sugar
in Water.
Herzfeld, 455.
Shrofeld, 456.
STRENGTHS of Lead.
Ammonia. Calcium
OF
Gerlach,
475.
of Lime.
in Milk
Blatner, 473.
^
Nitric
Sodic
in
Oxide
Oxide
Oxide
of Lime.
Fresenius, 476. Fresenius, 476.
Hydroxide).
Hydroxide).
(Sodium
Sulphuric Add,
474.
474.
472.
(Potassium
Acid.
Matecaek,
Graham-Otto,
Kolb,
Acid.
Sulphuric
Milk
Acid.
Hydrochloric Potassic
ETC.
SOLUTIONS.
Carius, 475. Oxide
Calcium
467.
Jacobsthal,
Solutions.
Sugar
Acetate
Sencier, 467.
Solutions, 455.
Otto, 471. for Dilution.
Table
Anthon, 472.
THERMAL
DATA. "
Boiling-points of Sugar Solutions. of Thermometric
Comparison FormulsB
for
Converting
Gerlach,
454.
Scales, 444, 446. of
Degrees
One
Thermometer
to
Those
446.
Another, Melting-points
of
470.
Walker,
Freezing-Mixtures.
Metals,
Temperature
of Iron
SUCROSE,
REDUCING
as
447.
Indicated
by Its Color,
SUGARS
(GLUCOSE), OF
Clerget-Steuerwald
Constants.
446.
PURITY.
Steuerwald, 268, 270.
Coefficients
of Purity.
Kottmann,
Coefficients
of Purity.
Home,
526.
522.
AND
CIENTS COEFFI-
of
LIST
OF
Table
Meiasl-Hiller
Reducing
AND
Invert
for
Tables.
Sugar
Sucrose
Tables.
Sucrose
Factors.
Sugar.
Meiasl-Wein,
Sohmiti,
500,
Crampton,
Weights,
Available
of
506.
(Empty
Space)
Gallon
per
SoUdB
and
(Briz),
514. of
Condenser-water.
have
Norris,
Used
been
in
Treating
434.
Sugar-oontaining
532.
S.
and
Bureau and
Standards,
in
Cylindrical
Cubic
Tanks,
Foot
of
Sugar
408. also
Solutions,
Weight
of
405.
Gallon
per
U.
TABLES.
Lippmann,
Von
Mensuration,
Weight
180,
428.
Wantage
Weights
Weight that
Solutions.
Weight
Meissl-HlUer,
512.
Geerligs, the
Substances
of
Index
and
Hersfeld,
425.
Sugar.
Estimation
517.
Rice,
UNCLASSIFIED
Atomic
561
FORMULiB.
616.
276,
240,
TABLES
of
Measures, 425.
Cubic
Standards, Metric
Foot
of
Water
at
Various
Temperatures.
440.
and
Customary.
U.
S.
Bureau
of
n 's
5l "D
s
a n
P
is' as
"
"WESTON" Centrifugals BELT, ELECTRIC
-
and
WATER-DRIVEN
Catalogues our
to
new
particulars of Ball f!9.^ringSpindle, applicable
on
giving
request
all drives.
Specially designed Switch
Electric
Motors,
with
interlocked
Self-Dischargers
POTT,
_"
CASSELS MOTHERWELL,
"
and
^^"
patent
brake. Unloaders
plants
Double-curing Btakera:"
and
^^
"
WILLIAMSON, SCOTLAND
BATES SUGAR AS
FLASKS
ADOPTBD
BT
THB
U.
S. CUSTOMS
8BSVICB
at
"Jt.T"*
No. Bates
18411
Suffar
to contain for use in
the the
Bates
Flasks true
or
Sugar Flaska
(M actual
regularly furnished
are
metric
milliliter
at
20^
aiia) by
C,
adjusted
us
or
at
2i\i'* C.
the be within .04ml for the tolerance 100ml and for the 200ml d: db .06ml lOOml is the standard Flask U. 8. Customs capacity. The in paragraph flask described House "b," section yil" Bureau of Standards Circular No. 44, '*Folarimetry. (I
tropics.
They
Each,
adjusted
,
17H""C.
18414
without
Rriemm
UBORATORY Washintton
to
H.
chan^m
Squre
81
10
81.80
1
10
1.80
udthont
notiem.
CO.
THOMAS
APPARATUS
100
40
graduation.
ttaht^ct
ARTHUR
West
too
at 10""C.
1841S. "'
to
'.
Capacity, ml 18411.
guaranteed
are
AND
REAOGNfS
PHILADELPHIA,
U.S.A.
"
GUILD
GARRISON NEW
BROOKLYN,
YORK,
BUILDERS
Pumps
for
Juice,Syrup, Molasses,
Vacuum, Sweet
OF
House
Special Sugar
U.S.A.
Filter Presses,
Water,
Melters, Lime, Magma, Hot Water, Injection,etc.
Spencer's Sugar Washers; Autoand delivery niatic measurement of the wash
water
centrifugals.
to
'y^/A//////////////y/y//y////////y/////////////////////////////y//////////////y///y//A
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Apparatus
'^Everythingfor
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Supplies
Sugar Chemut**
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EIMER
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ouNDAS
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Inc.
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net.
Calculations
0sed
Morse.
Hand 6
Second
tables.
30
Tables 6
Technical staedt Manual
97
Hand I..
binding, %i.oa
by
and
9.
C.J.
for
and
Gaston
grabados. for
Spencer.
de Alanzo
Ribete Chemists 475
117
pages.
C. A.
By
C. A.
By
888
pages.
de
Browne,
Otto
no
Mittel-
Cloth, Si.5onet.
pages.
flexible,(5.00
CaBa.
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Browne.
Works.
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net.
Cuadrada.
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By
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Sugar
Bourbakis.
Fabiicantes
do
Book
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Use. Laboratory Clotb, $1,25 net.
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Calculations
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