UNIT 69 SOCIETY AND CULTURE. STEREOTYPES AND EMBLEMS OF ENGLISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES. ENGLISH SONGS AS A VEHICLE OF CULTUR
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UNIT 69 SOCIETY AND CULTURE. STEREOTYPES AND EMBLEMS OF ENGLISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES. ENGLISH SONGS AS A VEHICLE OF CULTURAL INFLUENCE. OUTLINE 1. INTRODUCTION. 1.1. Aims of the unit. 1.2. Notes on bibliography. 2. SOCIETY AND CULTURE. 2.1. Misleading concepts. 2.1.1. Great Britain vs. the United Kingdom. 2.1.2. Society vs. Culture. 2.2. Language: a cultural and social means. 2.3. Society: issue typology. 2.4. Culture: issue typology. 2.5. Society and culture in English-speaking countries. 2.4.1. In the United Kingdom. 2.4.2. Out of the United Kingdom. 3. STEREOTYPES AND EMBLEMS OF ENGLISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES. 3.1. Definition: stereotypes and emblems. 3.2. Typology. 3.2.1. Main stereotypes. 3.2.2. Main emblems. 3.3. Stereotypes and emblems in English-speaking countries. 4. ENGLISH SONGS AS A VEHICLE OF CULTURAL INFLUENCE. 4.1. Definition and typology 4.2. English songs as a vehicle of cultural influence 4.2.1. Through the media. 4.2.2. Through education. 5. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS. 6. CONCLUSION. 7.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
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1. INTRODUCTION. 1.1. Aims of the unit.
The present unit, Unit 69, aims to provide a useful introduction to society and culture within the scope of stereotypes and emblems of English-speaking countries. Moreover, within this general overview, we shall address the question of English songs as a vehicle of cultural influence. So, the unit is to be divided into three main chapters which correspond to the main tenets of this unit. Thus, Chapter 2 provides a general introduction to the concepts of society and culture in relation to the English language since there is a link between these three terms within a sociocultural context or beyond its boundary. So, we shall start by (1) redefining certain concepts that may be misleading within this framework, such as that of addressing (a) Great Britain as the United Kingdom and (b) society vs. culture. Then, we shall offer (2) the cultural and social connection to the English language as a cultural and social means; (3) a typology of issues to deal with when we refer to society; and similarly, (4) a typology of issues regarding culture. Finally, we shall discuss what common features are shared by different (5) societies and cultures in the English-speaking countries by analysing (a) the countries in the United Kingdom and (b) out of it at international level.
Next, Chapter 3 shall analyse the phenomenon of stereotypes and emblems in the main Englishspeaking countries. In doing so, we shall provide (1) a definition of both stereotypes and emblems; (2) typology of the main (a) stereotypes and (b) emblems, and (3) an analysis of the main stereotypes and emblems within the different English-speaking countries. And finally, with this background in mind, Chapter 4 shall address the phenomenon of English songs as a vehicle of cultural influence by providing (1) definition and typology and then, stating the relevance of (2) English songs as as a vehicle of cultural influence (a) through the media and (b) through education. Chapter 5 will be devoted to the main educational implications in language teaching regarding the introduction of this issue in the classroom setting. Chapter 6 will offer a conclusion to broadly overview our present study, and Chapter 7 will include all the bibliographical references for further information.
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1.2. Notes on bibliography. An general introduction to society and culture within English-speaking countries is namely based on the Encyclopaedia Britannica (2004); The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia (2003); McLean, Profile UK (1993); and Vaughan-Rees, In Britain (1995). Specific information about stereotypes and emblems is drawn from Bromhead, Life in Modern Britain (1962); and the reliable sources of www.wikipedia.org (2004); www.bbc.co.uk (2004); and www.britannica.com (2004). The background for educational implications is based on the theory of communicative competence and communicative approaches to language teaching are provided by the most complete record of current publications within the educational framework is provided by the guidelines in B.O.E. (2002) for both E.S.O. and Bachillerato; and the Council of Europe, Modern Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common European Framework of reference (1998). 2. SOCIETY AND CULTURE.
Chapter 2 provides a general introduction to the concepts of society and culture in relation to the English language since there is a link between these three terms within a socio-cultural context or beyond its boundary. So, we shall start by (1) redefining certain concepts that may be misleading within this framework, such as that of addressing (a) Great Britain as the United Kingdom and (b) society vs. culture. Then, we shall offer (2) the cultural and social connection to the English language as a cultural and social means; (3) a typology of issues to deal with when we refer to society; and similarly, (4) a typology of issues regarding culture. Finally, we shall discuss what common features are shared by different (5) societies and cultures in the English-speaking countries by analysing (a) the countries in the United Kingdom and (b) out of it at international level.
2.1. Misleading concepts. 2.1.1. Great Britain vs. the United Kingdom. There is some confusion about the meaning of these two concepts, and some more, since they are referred to in several different ways: Britain, Great Britain, the British Isles, the U.K., and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. What do these names mean?
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Let us start by the distinction between Britain vs. Great Britain . In fact, there is no difference, just a nuance in meaning since Britain is the ancie nt name of modern Great Britain . Yet, Great Britain is often referred to as ‘the British Isles,’ but this is innacurate since Great Britain makes reference to the island lying off the western coast of Europe, comprising England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland (the main territory of the United Kingdom) whereas the British Isles is the name given to England, Scotland, Wales, the whole of Ireland, and the Isle of Man in the geography books. Actually, the island of Great Britain is the largest of the British Isles, the largest island in Europe, and the eighth in the world. In political terms, the term ‘Great Britain’ is used to describe the combination of England, Scotland and Wales, as well as distant outlying islands such as the Isles of Scilly, the Hebrides, and the island groups of Orkney and Shetland, but does not include (in this sense) the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands. Yet, following Bromhead (1962:195), “the political unit, for government and administration, is properly called ‘the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland’. This does not include the southern part of Ireland, which is now an independent republic and not even a member of the Commonwealth, and to be quite accurate it does not include the Channel Islands of Jersey, Guernsey and others, which lie off the coast of Normandy, or the Isle of Man, which lies between England and Ireland. These islands have their own legislatures and administrations and financ ial systems, but are more closely attached to the United Kingdom than the independent countries of the Commonwealth in other parts of the world.” Despite that fact that the UK became the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in the 1920s, ‘Great Britain’ is often used as a synonym of the UK in certain contexts (i.e. the UK competes in the Olympic Games as Great Britain). Also, the terms ‘Britain’ and ‘British’ refer to the whole of the UK or its predecessors, or institutions associated with them, and not just Great Britain. For example, United Kingdom monarchs are often called ‘British monarchs’; United Kingdom Prime Ministers are often called ‘British Prime Ministers’. Such usage is generally seen as correct. However, the use of the term English for British, as in ‘Queen of England’ is clearly inaccurate. Note that England in a sense of a separate state has not existed since 1707.
2.1.2. Society vs. culture. As stated above, society and culture are closely related to language, for our purposes, English. Imagine the world is a global village where the understanding of the complex and subtle relationship between these three elements becomes an essential condition for peaceful co-
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existence among its villagers. On the basis of this assumption, society and culture are interrelated, but play important different roles within the socio-cultural context. For instance, the term ‘society’ is defined by the website wikipedia (2004) as “a group of individuals that form a semi-closed system, in which most interactions are with other individuals belonging to the group.” This means that a ‘society’ is a network of relationships between people living together in an interdependent and ordered community under physical borders (versus ‘culture’ which has symbolic ones). Within the field of social sciences, the term ‘society’ is used as synonymous of citizenry of a country as directed through national institutions concerned with civic welfare (state, government and politics, health and welfare, education, family). Hence, French society, Spanish society, German society, and so on.
On the other hand, late nineteenth-century anthropologists defined the term ‘culture’ as the human nature that could apply to a wide variety of societies. Yet, what does this exactly mean? Culture has its roots in the universal human capacity to classify experiences, and encode and communicate them symbolically, that is, people develop common ways of understanding when living together through the use of symbolic values (to express their ideas), norms (to behave), and artifacts (to cohabitate with material things). So, values are defined as ideas about what in life is important; norms, as expectations of how people will behave in different situations. Note that each culture has different methods that enforce the norms, such as ‘santions’ or ‘laws;’ finally, the third component of culture, artifacts, is derived from the culture’s values and norms (i.e. housing, clothes, food and drink, sports, music). As a result, people living together will develop a unique culture and viceversa (people living apart from one another develop different cultures), but it is worth noting that elements of different cultures can easily spread from one group of people to another. Hence, we can find British clothes in the United States, or Indian food in Canada.
2.2. Language as a cultural and social means. When approaching the cultural dimension of the English language out of the Commonwealth, we deal with a widespread phenomena: English as a common means to communicate all over the world. Actually, namely spoken in the United Kingdom, the United States of America, and 103 other countries, “English is the second most popular ‘first’ language (native speakers), with around 402 million people in 2002” (wikipedia, 2004). Also, “it is the most widely used ‘second’ and ‘learning’ language in the world, and as such, many linguists believe, it is no
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longer the exclusive cultural emblem of ‘native English speakers’, but rather a language that is absorbing aspects of cultures worldwide as it grows in use. Others theorise that there are limits to how far English can go in suiting everyone for communication purposes.” The fact is that English has become the most important and the most spoken language in the world due to two main reasons: first, in the past, because of the highest number of colonies at the beginning of the century and, second, nowadays, because of its status as a lingua franca, due to the military, economic, scientific, political and cultural influence of the United Kingdom and later the United States. In fact, it has become the official language of international organisms such as the European Parliament, the EU Committee, the UNESCO, and NATO, among others.
This overall influence of the United States throughout the modern world has made English become by far the dominant language of contemporary science and technology, multinational industry and commerce, and of computerized information networks. Where possible, virtually all students worldwide are required to learn some English, and knowledge of English is virtually a prerequisite for working in many fields and occupations. Higher academic institutions, for example, require a working command of English. Yet, nowadays, recent figures show that over 320 million people speak English as a mother tongue and further 400 million people use it as a foreign language. In short, over 700 million people use English nowadays as a first, second or foreign language and have become international users of English. Hence English has a lot of varieties which depend on regional, educational, ethnic, attitudinal, medium and subject matter aspects. In particular, varieties according to the region are called ‘dialects,’ which are namely distinguished in phonological terms since we generally recognize a different dialect from a speaker’s pronunciation before we notice differences in grammar or vocabulary. For instance, the main dialects1 of the English language are American English, Australian English, British English, Canadian English, Caribbean English, Filipino English, Hiberno-English, Indian English, Jamaican English, Liberian English, Malaysian English, New Zealand English, Scottish English, Singapore English, and South African English (wikipedia, 2004). So, figures regarding the use of the English language around the world have been continuously increasing during the twentieth and twenty-first century. Actually, we may find people who
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Note that “these varieties may, in most cases, contain several subvarieties, such as Cockney within British English, Newfoundland English within Canadian English and African American Vernacular English within American English” (wikipedia, 2004).
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speak English as a native, second and foreign language. Yet, let us clarify the difference between these similar but confusing concepts. For instance, a mother tongue is considered to be the first language (L1) one learns as a child whereas a second language (L2) is acquired under the need of learning the language of another country. On the other hand, when languages are acquired in school, it is considered as a foreign language. The acronyms ESL and EFL stand for the learning of English as a Second and as a Foreign Language. So, these concepts will help us to establish the three main parametres under which we shall examine the way the English language is used in countries out of the Commonwealth, for instance, (a) as a native language in the United States, (b) as a second language in India, and (c) as a foreign language in Spain (so as to prepare the ground for next chapters on the distinction between British English and American English; and the presence of English in Spain). •
English as a native language.
Regarding the countries that use English as their native language or mother tongue, it is worth noting that most of those 402 million people (mentioned above) who speak English as their native language are citizens of the United States (est. 287,602,000 by 2002). Moreover, regarding its geographic distribution English is regarded as the first language in Australia, the Bahamas, Barbados, Bermuda, Guyana, Jamaica, New Zealand, Antigua, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Trinidad and Tobago, the United Kingdom and the United States of America (wikipedia, 2004). “English is also one of the primary languages of Belize (with Spanish), Canada (with French), Cameroon (with French and African languages), Dominica, St. Lucia and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (with French Creole), the Federated States of Micronesia, Ireland (with Irish), Liberia (with African languages), Singapore and South Africa (with Afrikaans and other African languages).” •
English as a second language.
Regarding English as a second language it is worth noting that the estimated number of English speakers are possibly between 350 and 1,000 million. The reason is that English is not used as a native language, but as a practical or educated first language within a largely bilingual society or due to the necessity to use it for some practical purposes due to administrative, professional, educational or commercial reasons. So, English as a second language is an official language in Fiji, Ghana, Gambia, Hong Kong, India, Kiribati, Lesotho, Kenya, Namibia, Nigeria, Malta, the Marshall Islands, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, the Solomon Isla nds, Samoa,
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Sierra Leone, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Moreover, “it is the most commonly used unofficial language of Israel and an increasing number of other countries such as Switzerland, Norway and Germany” (wikipedia, 2004). •
English as a foreign language.
Recent figures show that the number of people who speak English as a foreign language nowadays exceeds 400 million or even more. English has become one of the main aims in teaching foreign languages so grammars, dictionaries, and manuals on it proliferate nowadays. There is also a general raising of consciousness, with new language courses in schools, regarding the learning of a foreign language, namely English, so as to help people keep pace with current developments (scientific, technological, educational); and this is to be achieved predominantly by means of the media (popular programmes on radio and television, songs, documentaries, press). Current figures show that English is the language “most often studied as a foreign language in Europe (32.6%) and Japan, followed by French, German and Spanish” (wikipedia, 2004).
2.3. Society: issue typology. In this section we shall introduce a typology of issues within the concept of ‘society’ taking into account that they deal with national institutions and civic welfare. Moreover, implicit in the meaning of society is that its members share some mutual concern or interest in a common objective: collective citizenry. This is the reason why peoples of many nations become united by common politic al and cultural traditions, beliefs, or values which, sometimes, are also said to be part of society. Yet, when used in this context, the term is being used as a means of contrasting two or more ‘societies’ whose representative members represent alternative conflicting and competing worldviews. Then, since social sciences (also called social studies) comprise the scientific study of the human aspects of the world, we namely distinguish the following topics: history, state, government, politics, law, economics, business, and finally, communication and the media . •
History is often used as a generic term for information about the past, though sometimes it is used as the name of a field of study, that is, human history, which is the recorded memory of past human societies. There are two main ways of classifying it: (1) by location (Africa, America, Asia, Europe, Oceania, Antarctica); (2) by date (centuries,
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decades, periodization); by academic classification (prehistory, ancient history, modern history, early modern history); and miscellaneous classifications (history of literature, history of art, history of cinema, military history). •
The state is defined as a sovereign political entity in international law and international relations, that is, not being subject to any higher political authority (in casual language, a ‘country’) as well as in terms of domestic conditions, specifically in relation to the role of the monopolization of force, political philosophies, and ideal roles within a country. The definition of state comprises the political subdivisions of some countries (confederation, federal, regime). Finally, it is worth mentioning that the legal criteria for statehood are not obvious, but a document quoted on the matter (Montevideo Convention, 1933, artic le 1) states that “the state as a person of international law should possess the following qualifications: (a) a permanent population; (b) a defined territory; (c) government; and (d) capacity to enter into relations with the other states.”
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Hence, next element to be included is government, which is defined as “an organization that has the power to make and enforce laws for a certain territory” (wikipedia, 2004). This means that it is the dominant decision-making arm (the policy elite) of the state so as to create, enforce and control a territory via bureaucratic hierarchy (police, military forces, justice). This control is exerced through such activities as “collecting taxes, controlling entry and exit to the state, preventing encroachment of territory by neighbouring states and preventing the establishment of alternative governments within the country.” Typical methods of maintaining support and legitimacy include providing infrastructure for justice, administration, transport, social welfare; holding ele ctions for important posts within the state; limiting the power through laws and constitutions. Hence governments are related to the fields of economics, education, health, science, territory and war and have various forms of government. Actually, a government in a developed state is likely to have sub-organisations known as offices, departments, or agencies, which deal with the mentioned fields, and are “headed by politically appointed officials, often called ministers or secretaries. Ministers may in theory act as advisors to the head of state, but in practice have a certain amount of direct power in specific areas.”
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Politics, then, deal with the “process and conduct of decision-making for groups [Labour vs. Conservative Party in UK; Democrats vs. Republicans in US]. Although it is usually applied to governments, political behavior is also observed in corporate,
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academic, religious, and other institutions.” The political behavior of a given policy, leader or party is studied by political sciences, which examines the acquisition and application of power, that is, the ability to impose one’s will on another. •
Laws are concerned with politics and jurisprudence, that is, rules of conduct which proscribe specified relationships among people and organizations, as well as punishments. In short, law is the formal codification of customs within the legislative bodies through legislation, regulation of statues and resolution of disputes (British Educational Laws; Statue of Westminster).
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Economics, a term coined in around 1870 by Alfred Marshall, is defined as the social science that deals with “the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services, in terms of trade offs between competing alternatives as observed through measurable quantities such as price and output. Political economy explicitly brings political considerations into economic analysis and therefore tends to be more normative. Some mainstream universities (such as the University of Toronto and many in the United Kingdom) have a political economy department rather than an economics department.”
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business refers to commercial activities and interests through the figure of enterprises, and is usually defined as ‘industry’ (hence ‘fishing’ business or ‘fishing’ industry). Similarly, the word ‘trade’ may be used to refer to ‘business’ and ‘industry’. Actually, people establish businesses in order to perform economic or industrial activities. “With some exceptions (such as cooperatives, corporate bodies, non-profit organizations and institutions of government), businesses exist to produce profit. In other words, the owners and operators of a business have as one of their main objectives to receive or generate a financial return for their time, effort and capital.” Businesses are classified into service businesses (transport, shops), distributors, manufacturers, partnerships, corporations (limited companies), sole proprietorhips. Hence the famous Time Warner, Walt Disney Company, Twentieth Century Fox, News Corporation and Hollywood Planet, among others.
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communication and the media . Communication is the process of exchanging information usually via a common system of symbols. This process is usually carried out by the mass media, which comprises radio, television, movies, magazines, newspapers and, more recently, the World Wide Web. Since the media reaches a mass audience, techniques such as advertising and propaganda have been increasingly
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developed by companies to make vast fortunes (BBC, Nike, Coca-Cola companies, among others).
2.4. Culture: issue typology. Since the term ‘culture’ refers to values, norms and elite consumption of goods and activities, culture is often identified with ‘civilization’, as a complex web of shifting patterns that link people in different regions, and link social formations of different scales. So, a typology of issues regarding culture is likely to include all the elements that reflect the stratified character of a society in terms of religion, visual arts and design, literature, fashion, housing, hobbies, and entertainment, among others. •
We shall start by the issue of religion since it deals with values. Actually, religion is defined as the “belief in the divine, supernatural, or sacred that results in worship.” This phenomenon often provokes a conflict between ‘relig ion’ and ‘anti-religion’ advocates (hence the conflict in Northern Ireland between Catholics and Protestants; and more recently, between ‘islamism’ and ‘Western societies’).
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The field of visual arts and design is extremely broad, but essentially it is any art that you can see, excluding performance. Actually , we divide both categories into subcategories, so visual arts are classified into three main types: (1) ‘traditional’ or ‘fine arts’ such as batik, drawing, painting, sculpture, printmaking, photography, film, ceramics, textile art; (2) ‘contemporary art’, which includes: avant garde, comic books and strips, computer generated art (digital or electronic), conceptual art, depliage, email art, found art, graffiti (also called DAIM, Street Art or Taging), installation art, interactive art, internet art, mail art, media art, pop art, public art, transfer art, and video art; and (3) ‘body art’ which comprises tattoo, body modification, body piercing, and scarification (wikipedia, 2004). On the other hand, design is classified into architecture, cabinet making, commercial art (visual communication), fashion design, graphic design (marketing), heraldry (design of coats-of-arms or armorial achievements), illustration, industrial/product design, interior design/decoration, art stencils, or web design.
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Literature is often defined as the historical account of the world (sometimes explicitly, others implicitly) through the vision of learned writers. Hence literature is traditionally presented through authors (Shakespeare, Dickens, Hemingway, Greene), a period (Medieval literature, modern literature) or timeline classification (Elizabethan literature,
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Georgian literature, Victorian literature) so as to give an account of the main historical events worldwide, for our purposes, in English-speaking countries. Other well-known literary figures include the Brontë sisters (Charlotte, Anne and Emily), Agatha Christie, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, Geoffrey Chaucer, Dr Samuel Johnson, George Orwell, and J.R.R. Tolkien. Among important poets we shall mention Robert Burns, Thomas Hardy, John MIlto, Rudyard Kipling, Alfred Tennyson, Dyland Thomas, and finally, William Wordsworth. •
Fashion is also included in the list of cultural elements, since different societies are distinguished by means of clothes (national, regional, local), customs (Hindu’s hairband, uniforms in UK public schools), trends (American youth in the 1960s and hippy clothes), luxury items (Miami Vice and fast cars), catwalks (Naomi Campbell), or even the lack of clothes (Australian aborigins).
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Housing also marks the difference between cultures depending on the geographical site of the country we refer to (north, south) and other factors, such as climate (British vs. Spanish houses), location (city centre vs. countryside), and lifestyle (American country house vs. modern London flat). For instance, broadly speaking New York is characterized by the well-known skyscrapers whereas the Hindu city centre is not; similarly, Hollywood Boulevard is related to mansions whereas the industrial Manchester is related to red-brick semi-detached houses; and so on.
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Hobbies, also called, spare-time pursuits, are practised for interest and enjoyment, rather than financial reward (collecting stamps, playing chess), though the main aim is personal fulfillment. They may lead us to acquiring substantial skill, knowledge, and experience and, also, what is a hobby for someone may be a profession for another (cooking as a chef, playing football as a professional). Yet, since Middle Ages falconry, hobbies have changed considerably up to the present day, for instance, today’s leisure times are sports, mountaineering, sailing, or cultural entertainment. It is worth noting that sometimes the line between a hobby and an obsession can become blurred and get to documented cases of violence. In fact, people who obsessively pursue a particular hobby is called ‘anorak’ in the UK. This name derives from the particular weatherproof clothing worn by enthusiasts of offshore radio who sometimes would travel from British ports to visit the ships from which their outcast heroes broadcast during the 1960s and 1970s.
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However, entertainment is regarded as the most relevant cultural element within the elite consumption of goods and activities since it comprises a vast list of issues, for instance, games, chatting, dancing, music, mass media (show business, humor), sex business, and the king type of entertainment: sports.
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Games in general refer to any type of entertainment. The first one to mention is gambling, which refers to any behaviour which involves “the risk of money or valuables on the outcome of a game, contest or any other event in which the outcome of that activity is partially or totally dependent upon chance” (wikipedia, 2004). Gambling is a brain chemistry whose customers become addictive and acquire a harmful behaviour in some people, and it is also related to the organized crime, which uses violent methods to get large gambling debts (The film ‘Casino’ by Martin Scorsesse). Among the most famous gambling activities we include: slot machines, poker, blackjack, baccarat, roulette, and the wheel of fortune (i.e. Las Vegas). Other types of gambling take place in horse racing, greyhound racing, football matches, golf, tennis, cricket, baseball, basketball and hockey. In addition many bookmakers offer odds on a number of non-sports related outcomes (snow on Christmas Day, the winner in Big Brother). Also, among non-casino gambling games, we include the lottery, dice-based, card games, coin-tossing, carnival games, and bar games (put and take, the smack, the drunken mitt). In Canada and the United States the most common types of bets are on horse race whereas in the United Kingdom bookmakers offer exotic wagers on horses at different tracks. Note that the custom for women to wear enormous hats at the races is worldwide known as a cultural symbol. Also, betting on team sports is an important service industry in many countries, for instance, millions of Britons every week. Yet, in Canada and the United States sports betting is usually illegal (Nevada offers full sports betting and the Canadian provinces offer government-run sports parlay betting). However, millions engage in it despite its illegality.
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Chatting, commonly known as ‘chat’ is a casual conversation, recently adopted since the establishment of the Internet. The term is associated to online chat services which offer multi-person ‘chat-room’ facilities. Today the most
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popular means of chatting online are instant messaging applications (bluechat, chat room, IRC, outline chat). o
Dancing is defined as “the human movement used as a form of expression or presented in a social, spiritual or performance setting.” It is relevant for our purposes since it implies social, cultural, aesthetic artistic and moral constrainsts and range from functional movement (folk dance) to codified (ballet). Moreover, among the English-speaking countries we may find historical, traditional, ceremonial and ethnic dances (America’s rock’n’roll, Afrikaan’s ritual dances, Hindu ceremonial dances).
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Music is closely related to dancing and also establishes cultural markers among different countries since the sounds people accept as music vary according to historical era, location and cultural and individual taste. It is regarded as a physical, psychological and social phenomenon, hence its relevance as a vehicle of culture transmission. Actually, many cultures include strong traditions of solo performances (Indian classical music) whereas other cultures (Bali) include strong traditio ns of group performance. All cultures include a mixture of both in modern classical concerts or religious processions. Nowadays we have access to music through several media , being the most traditional way to hear it live, in the presence of the musicians or live music broadcast over the radio or television. Sometimes, live performances incorporate prerecorded sounds, for example, a DJ using records for scratching. Among famous figures who have made major contributions to British music and are known internationally, we highlight the composers Michael Tippet, Benjamin Britten, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Arthur Sullivan, William Walton, Edward Elgar, Henry Purcell, John Blow, John Taverner, Thomas Tallis, and William Byrd. Among living composers we mention John Tavener, Harrison Birtwistle, and Oliver Knussen. Since London is one of the most important cities for music in the world, Britain is also famous for supporting a number of major orchestras including the BBC Symphony Orchestra, the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, the Philharmonia, the London Symphony Orchestra and the London Philharmonic Orchestra. Hence London has several important concert halls and is also home to the Royal Opera House, one of the world’s leading opear houses.
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Nowadays, the UK, together with the US, is the main leading country in the music industry. Supporting the rock and roll in the past, it has provided bands such as The Beatles, the Rolling Stones, The Who, Pink Floyd, Led Zeppelin, Status Quo, the Manic Street Preachers, Oasis, Radiohead or the Sex Pistols. Since then it has also pioneered electronic dance music (acid house, drum and bass, trip hop) and acclaimed British dance through bands such as Underworld or Chemical Brothers. Moreover, most musicals are played in the National Theatre in London. o
The mass media nowadays, together with the advent of the World Wide Web, is in charge of mark the first era in which any individual could have a means of exposure from anywhere in the world. Hence, it is also a cultural marker (the British BBC, the American CNN).
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sex business is considered one the most successful commercial enterprises within adult entertainment since it is not suitable for children (the US Playboy, Penthouse, sex advertisements on London’s phone boxes). This industry represents a large portion of the worlds economy, and has been credited with driving technological advances in popular media, such as the home video and live streaming video on the internet, being heterosexual men the first largest consumers. Though advocating that it educates people about sexuality and sexual health, this industry operates between legality and illegality in the fields of striptease, live sex show, peep show, pornography, prostitution, erotic massage, sex shop, and telephone sex.
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and the king type of entertainment: sports, as it is a major area of human interest and activity. Considered a large part of our leisure, newspaper and TV time is given over to it. Actually, a great number of the world’s major originated in the UK, for instance, football, golf, boxing, rugby, cricket, snooker, billiards, badminton and curling. Earlier sport men were Roman gladiators, which fought and killed for the delectation of the audience, Greek athletes when running for the Olympic Games, and more recently, football. Actually “the entertainment aspect of sport, together with the spread of mass media and increased leisure time, has led to professionalism in sport. This has resulted in some conflict, where the paycheck can be seen as more important than recreational aspects: or where the sport is changed simply to make it more profitable and popular therefore losing some of the traditions valued by some”
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(wikipedia, 2004). Sport is both related to politics (as an effective contribution to the demolition of the apartheid policy in South Africa; or the controversial Gaelic sports with nationalistic overtones) and art (ice skating, Tai chi, gymnastics, bodybuilding). Yet, nowadays sport stars are the real trigger for the audience (David Beckam, Manchester United team).
2.5. Society and culture in the English-speaking countries. So, taking into account the previous comments on society and cultural issues, we shall proceed to analyse, broadly speaking, how society and culture is present in the English-speaking countries with a common code: the English language, first, in the United Kingdom and, then, out of the United Kingdom.
2.5.1. In the United Kingdom. As stated, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly known as the UK) is a state (known simply as the United Kingdom, or incorrectly as Great Britain or Britain) which consists of the formerly self-governing nations of England, Wales, Scotland, and the province Northern Ireland after a series of Acts of Union. The rest of Ireland left the United Kingdom in 1922 after its independence as Eire. It is situated just off the north western coast of mainland Europe, surrounded by the North Sea, the English Channel and the Atlantic Ocean. Also, under its sovereignty we find the Crown Dependencies of the Channel Islands, the Isle of Man and a number of overseas territories. It has three official languages, English, Welsh and Scots Gaelics, though other regional languages are recognised: Irish Gaelic, Cornish, Scots and Ulster Scots. Yet, many other unofficial languages are present due to the wide variety of mong religions (Church of England, Church of Scotland, Roman Catholic, Muslim, Methodist, Hindu, Sikh and Jewish). Its capital is London and other important cities are Birmingham, Leeds, Manchester and Liverpool. It has an extension of 244,820 km2 and a population of 59,511,464 and its currency is the pound sterling.
In form, it is a very centralised state with a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary democracy, with a queen and a Parliament that has two houses: the House of Lords and the House of Commons. London’s Westminster Parliament holds responsibility for most of the
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UK’s political power. “The UK’s current monarch and head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who acceded to the throne in 1952 and was crowned in 1953. In modern Britain, the monarch’s role is mainly ceremonial, with the UK’s real political power being delegated to the Prime Minister by Parliament” (wikipedia, 2004). “Its legislative power is invested in an elected government, and executive power invested in a Cabinet lead by the Prime Minister whose power, though carried out in the monarch’s name, is answerable to Parliament and through it the electorate. It is governed from its capital, London.” Yet, in recent years, “each of the constituent nations, apart from England, has been granted its own government, responsible in varying degree for some internal matters.” Regarding economics, the UK is considered as a leading trading power and financial centre thanks to its essentially capitalist economy, one of the largest of Western Europe. Following wikipedia (2004), “over the past two decades the government has greatly reduced public ownership by means of privatisation programmes, and has contained the growth of the Welfare State. Agriculture is intensive, highly mechanised, and efficient by European standards, producing about 60% of food needs with only 1% of the labour force. The UK has large coal, natural gas, and oil reserves. Services, particularly banking, insurance, and business services, account for by far the largest proportion of GDP while industry continues to decline in importance.” Tracing back in history, “Stonehenge and other examples of prehistoric culture are what remains of the earliest inhabitants of Britain.” Celtic peoples followed, but after four centuries of Roman rule, Britain fell prey to invading hordes of Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. Yet, it was not until the 10th century that the country became united under the kings of Wessex. The death of Edward the Confessor in 1066 marked a turning point in the history of Great Britain since William, duke of Normandy, invaded England, defeated the Saxon king, Harold II, at the Battle of Hastings (1066) and introduced Norman French law and feudalism with the so-called Norman conquest (linguaphone.co.uk).
Since then, following the encyclopaedia wikipedia (2004), “Scotland and England have existed as separate unified entities since the tenth century. Wales, under English control since the Statute of Rhuddan in 1284, became part of the Kingdom of England by the Act of Union 1536. With the Act of Union 1707 the separate kingdoms of England and Scotland, having shared the same monarch since 1603, agreed to permanent union as the Kingdom of Great Britain.. The Act of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain with the Kingdom of Ireland, which had been gradually brought under English control between 1169 and 1603, to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.” Yet, “in 1922, 26 of the counties of Ireland were formed
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into the Irish Free State (the other six Ulster counties remaining part of the United Kingdom as Northern Ireland) and the state became the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the name being officially changed in 1927.” “The United Kingdom, the dominant industrial and maritime power of the 19th century, played a leading role in developing parliamentary democracy and in advancing literature and science. At its zenith, the British Empire stretched over one quarter of the earth’s surface. The first half of the 20th century saw the UK’s strength seriously depleted in two World Wars. The second half witnessed the dismantling of the Empire and the UK rebuilding itself into a modern and prosperous European nation. The UK is currently weighing the degree of its integration with continental Europe.” “A member of the EU, it has chosen to defer its participation in Euro Zone owing to internal political considerations.” Actually, “Blair’s controversial meeting in October 1997 with Sinn Fein’s political leader, Gerry Adams, was the first meeting in 76 years between a British prime minister and a Sinn Fein leader.” This “infuriated numerous factions but was a symbolic gesture in support of the nascent peace talks in Northern Ireland. In 1998 the Good Friday Agreement, strongly supported by Tony Blair, held out the promise of peace between Catholics and Protestants, and talks continue” (linguophone.co.uk). “Constitutional reform is also a current issue in the UK. The House of Lords has been subjected to ongoing reforms and National assemblies with varying degrees of power were created in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland in 1999. Further assemblies for the English regions are also under consideration. According to opinion polls, the monarchy remains generally popular in spite of recent controversies. Support for a British Republic usually fluctuates between 15% and 25% of the population.” Also, “the United Kingdom is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations (successor organisation to the former Empire), the European Union and NATO. It is also a permanent member of the UN Security Council and holds a veto power.” Moreover, in terms of nations, regions, counties, areas and districts, the UK is made up of the four already mentioned nations: England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, which are in turn subdivided. For instance, •
England is made up of three regions: the South (from the River Severn in the west, to the Wash, a bay on the East coast; the Midlands, from the Severn-Wash line to another line from the estuary of the river Mersey to the Humber estuary in the east; and the North, from the Mersey-Humber line to the Scottish border. o
Some special features of the South region are: the climate (warmer than in the other areas), the varied landscape (miles of sea coast with a variety of flat,
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sandy or stony beaches; a gentle and green inland landscape), coastal resorts (famous for holidays: Southend, Brighton, Margate), London’s suburbs, the English Channel, with 35 km from Dover to Calais and the presence of ferries from Dover, Portsmouth, Plymouth across the Channel, a wide range of trade and industry work (British aerospace), on land there are grain-growing, milk production and stock-raising (meat) whereas on the sea we may find boats sailing from the many harbours. Some places of interest are the prehistoric monuments of Stonehenge, the Windsor’s Royal Residence, the famous public school at Eton, the Canterbury Cathedral, the famous Roman remains at Bath and the oldest universities in Britain, Oxford and Cambridge. o
Some special features of the Midlands region are: the climate (cooler and wetter than in the South) and the lack of sea coast. Also, the area where the Industrial Revolution began, that is, large industrial areas which are very distinct from the rural ones. The chief cities of the Midlands include: Birmingham as the second largest city in the UK, and Derby, an enginerring centre where you may find Rolls Royce’s aero engines and cars. We also find the Brit ish coal-mining industry, the industrial are of potteries, and farming. Some places of interest in the Midlands are the birthplace and burial place of William Shakespeare (Stratford-on-Avon), the ancient cathedral chruches of Worcester, Gloucester and Lichfield, in contrast to the fine modern cathedral of Coventry, bombed during the WWII.
o
Among the special features of the North of England, we may say that in general it gets colder the further north-east you go and wetter in the west. The landscape is different from the other regions because it is covered by short grass or low-growing heather. There is also a great contrast between the beautiful open, hilly countryside and the industrial towns and mining villages. Famous industrial centres are: Manchester (textiles, cotton goods, and engineering), Sheffield (steel-making: knives, scissors), Leeds (textile: woollen cloth, manufacture of coats, women’s dresses and men’s suits), and Newcastle -onTyne, known for ship-building and ship repairing. Furthermore, the North has coal natural resources and a chemical industry, the Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI). It also has two fine sea coasts for its citizens to enjoy (Blackpool adn Scarborough). Some places of interest to visit are: Hadrian’s Wall, the Lake District (a romantic scenery), the small, ancient university of Durham, the medieval city walls of York, and Chester, another former Roman city.
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•
Scotland is subdivided in 32 council areas, though there are three large geographical areas: the Highlands, the Lowlands , and the Islands. About five million people live in these areas (three-quarters of them live in the Central Lowlands). The regions of Scotland are administered from Edinburgh, the capital. Other important cities are Glasgow, the chie f industrial and commercial city, and Aberdeen, the chief cattle breeding centre. Scotland’s geography is famous for Ben Nevis, the UK’s highest mountain (1343 m). There are also many long and deep sea arms, firths, lochs, and a multitude of islands west and north of Scotland (the Hebrides, Orkney Islands, and Shetland Islands). In the Highlands farmers lead a hard and lonely life whereas in the Lowlands life is much easier (cattle -breeding, seed-potato growing), though some of the traditional Scottish industries of ship-building and ship-repairing and fishing are declining. On the other hand, financial assistance is administered by the Scottish Development Agency, which is in charge of saving jobs, creating new ones and develop and modernise industry with the help of the UK central government. Places of interest include: Balmoral Castle, the Edinburgh Festival for music and drama, the Western Isles, the remote and barren northern islands (Shetlands, Orkneys) and if you catch a glimpse, perhaps the Loch Ness monster.
•
Wales is divided into 22 unitary authorities, styles as 10 county boroughs, 9 counties, and 3 cities. Its capital is Cardiff, located in the south, and overall figures show an estimated population of 2,8 million. Most of them live in the industrial areas of South Wales, where the main Welsh industries like coal-mining, iron and steel making, and tim-plate manufacturing are set up. Though the architectural style is not very attractive, the Welsh countryside is beautiful. Wales is mostly mountainous, the highest peak being Snowdon, at 1,085 m above sea level; also, north of the mainland is the island of Anglesey. Some special points of interest are the Welsh borders, so popular for tourists. Actually, most people from London and theWest Midlands, have bought holiday homes in Wales to spend their holidays. The Welsh language is called ‘Cimru’ and is spoken with a distinctive ‘sing-song’ intonation. Welsh folklore and the language strengthen each other: a yearly-national festival of poetry and music called ‘Eisteddfod’ and choirs. Finally, Wales has an obvious connection with the monarchy since the Prince of Wales is the title given to the heir to the throne in Britain.
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•
Northern Ireland remained united after the independence of southern Ireland in 1922 and since then it is considered a province which nowadays consists of 24 districts, 2 cities and 6 counties. It is often called ‘Ulster’ and ‘the Six Counties’, since there are six administrative areas in the provice. Its capital is Belfast and is famous for the ‘Orange Day’ march that takes place every year on the anniversary of the Battle of the Boyne in 1690, where Protestants commemorate the victory of English King William III over the Irish Catholics. In recent times, there are people in both Northern and Southern Ireland who believe fiercely that the two parts should be united in one independent state, and they really work towards this end. Yet, there is a majority in the North who wish to remain part of Britain and then they work against a united Ireland. There are the two religions defending their own faiths in the North; each defends its own way of life as two separate communities: the Republic in the South is namely Catholic whereas the Protestant Community controls the economic and political life in the North. Some gentler features of Northern Ireland include the northeastern part of Ireland, whose landscape is gentle and colour green because it rains a lot. It is mostly hilly since mountains roll gently down to the sea. The highest peak is the Slieve Donard at 932 metres above the sea. Also, Northern Ireland is a land of lakes, rivers and a varied sea coast. It is a great place for outdoor sports, and for tourism (when times are peaceful). Yet, the Northern Irish people are friendly and generous as St Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland, who is its representative.
2.5.2. Out of the United Kingdom.
So as to offer a general approach to those English-speaking countries out of the United Kingdom, we shall concentrate on the past member of the Commonwealth, formerly under control of the British Empire and nowadays, independent from the monarchy of the United Kingdom. Symbolically they are fifteen sovereign countries known as Commonwealth Realms. Note that although Britain has no political or executive power over these independent nations, it retains influence, through long-standing close relations. We shall also talk about Ireland, which got its independence from the UK. Yet, traditionally, the Commonwealth of Nations regards the “free association of sovereign states consisting of Britain and many of its former dependencies who have chosen to maintain ties of friendship and cooperation. It was established in 1931 by the Statute of Westminster as the British Commowealth of Nations. Later its name was changed and it was redefined to
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include independent nations. Most of the dependent states that gained independence after 1947 chose Commonwealth membership.” Moreover, “the British monarch serves as its symbolic head, and meetings of the more than 50 Commowealth heads of government take place every two years.” What follows is a brief history of the origins of the English-speaking countries. History tells us that “territorial acquisition began in the early 17th century with a group of settlements in North America and West Indian, East Indian, and African trading posts founded by private individuals and trading companies. In the 18th century the British took Gibraltar, established colonies along the Atlantic seacoast, and began to add territory in India. With its victory in the French and Indian War (1763), it secured Canada and the eastern Mississippi Valley and gained supremacy in India” (Britannica, 2004). By 1776 the American colonies were controlled by governors appointed by the British government and by 1783, North American colonists got their independence by establishing the Constitution of the United States. After that, the British began to build power in Malaya and acquired the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), and Malta. The English settled Australia in 1788, and subsequently New Zealand. Aden was secured in 1839, and Hong Kong in 1842. Britain went on to control the Suez Canal (1875-1956) and after the 19th -century partitition of Africa, it acquired Nigeria, Egypt, the territories that would become British East Africa, and part of what would become the Union of South Africa. It must be borne in mind that prior to 1783, Britain claimed full authority over colonial legislatures, but after the U.S. gained independence, Britain gradually evolved a system of self-government for some colonies. Hence since Dominion status was given to Canada (1867), the British Empire started to change into a ‘Commonwealth’ of independent nations as later on it was also given to Australia (1901), New Zealand (1907), the Union of South Africa (1910), and the Irish Free State (1921). After World War I, Britain secured mandates to German East Africa, part of the Cameroons, part of Togo, German South-West Africa, Mesopotamia, Palestine, and part of the German Pacific islands. Yet, the dominions signed the peace treaties themselves (Paris Peace Conference (1919), where commissions were appointed to study specific financial and territorial questions, and the Treaty of Versailles, an international agreement signed in 1919) and joined the League of Nations, an organization for international cooperation established by the Allied Powers so as to be independent states. The league established a system of colonial mandates, but it was weakened by the failure of the United States, which had not ratified the Treaty of Versailles (1919). So, the League ceased its activities during World War II and it was replaced in 1946 by the United Nations.
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In the 1920s nationalist movements were to be strongly felt in India, Egypt and in the Arab mandated territories. In 1922 Egypt was granted a degree of independence by Britain and full independence in 1936. Similarly, Iraq gained full independence in 1932. On the other hand, India achieved its independence in 1947 after the movement of Indian nationalism, boosted by the 1919 Amritsar Massacre. In 1931, the British Parliament, by means of the Statute of Westminster, recognized the legislative independence and equal status under the Crown of its former dominions and the Irish Free State within a British Commonwealth of Nations. The resultant relationship is sometimes thought to have been a precursor to the post-war British Commonwealth. During the Second World War, Britain’s civilian population found themselves under severe domestic restrictions, and occasionally bombing. Also, conflict accelerated many social and political developments and growing nationalist movements impacted both on the British rule of Empire and on the individual nations of the British Isles. Hence, most of the remaining imperial possessions were granted independence, for instance, fifty years after Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee, India was cut in two to become the Commonwealth countries of India and Pakistan. The most recent development in the dismantling of the British Empire was the restoration to Chinese rule, under a declaration signed in 1984, of the former British crown colony of Hong Kong, on the southeastern coast of China, where the Union Jack was finally and symbolically lowered on July 1, 1997. So, one by one, the subject peoples of the British Empire have entered a postcolonial era, in which they must reassess their national identity, their history and literature, and their relationship with the land and language of their former masters. So, we shall try to present an overview of the English-speaking countries regarding their society and cultural variety by addressing, namely (a) the United States, (b) Canada, (c) Australia, (d) New Zealand, (e) South Africa, (f) India, and (g) the Caribbean Islands.
•
The United States.
They are a federal republic in North America whose capital is Washington D.C. Its currency is the so-called U.S. dollar. Following the Encyclopaedia britannica (2004), “it comprises 48 contiguous states occupying the mid continent, Alaska at the northwestern extreme of North America, and the island state of Hawaii in the mid-Pacific Ocean.” Its area includes the U.S. share of the Great Lakes: 3,675,031 sq mi (9,518,287 sq km).” Its estimated population in 2002 was around 287,602,000 and includes people of European and Middle Eastern ancestry, African
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Americans, Hispanics, Asians, Pacific Islanders, American Indians (Native Americans), and Alaska Natives. Hence the population languages include: English as predominant language and Spanish. Among the variety of religions we find “Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Judaism, and Islamism.” The country’s regions encompass mountains, plains, lowlands, and deserts. Mountain ranges include the Appalachians, Ozarks, Rockies, Cascades, and Sierra Nevada.” The lowest point is Death Valley, in Calif whereas the highest point is Alaska’s Mount MCKinley;” also, “within the coterminous U.S. it is Mount Whitney, Calif. Chief rivers are the Mississippi system, the Colorado, the Columbia , and the Rio Grande. The Great Lakes, the Great Salt Lake, and Lake Okkechobee are the largest lakes. The U.S. is among the world’s leading producers of several minerals, including copper, silver, zinc, gold, coal, petroleum, and natural gas; it is the chief exporter of food. Its manufactures include iron and steel, chemicals, electronic equipment, and textiles. Other important industries are tourism, dairying, livestock raising, fishing, and lumbering. It is a republic with two legislative houses; its head of state and government is the president.”
•
Canada
Canada was given the dominion status in 1867, and by the time of the Commonwealth founding, it was one of the state members. It is regarded as a transplanted society (Maxwell, 1982) as well as Australia and New Zealand since the majority of its population is of European origin and had to change the already established cultural habits in the new land. So, it retained a nonindigenous language. Historically speaking, the first settlement in Canada traces back to the 16th century under the figure of the Frenchman Jacques Cartir. Therefore, until the eighteenth century most European immigrants who arrived in Canada came namely from France in opposition to the North American coast, which received English, Irish and Scottish population. Similarly, it is said that the bulk of Canada’s immigrants arrived namely from Continental Europe in the twentieth and twenty-first century. In linguistic terms, Canada has developed a type of Canadian English which is difficult for us to understand since it is different from other North American varieties. It is regarded as a homogeneous language, which has not been affected by its nearest linguistic neighbour, American English. The differences lie mainly in vocabulary and pronunciation, since Canadian spelling preserves some British forms (theatre, centre, colour, behaviour) and there are no
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distinctive grammar features. We also highlight the fact that there are also several words of Canadian origin (chesterfield). Regarding its cultural diversity, Canada is nowadays still headed by British population (around 45%), followed by French (25%) and the rest (30%) belong to other nationalities rather than British or French. The influence of French colonization is still present in culture, since America has influenced this country through the media. Yet, the French-speaking population, namely set up in Quebec, has a powerful separatist movement which addresses their affiliation to France. No literature works are worth mentioning within the neo-colonialism movement in Canada.
•
Australia
Following Britannica (2004), “Australia has long been inhabited by Aboriginals, who arrived 40,000–60,000 years ago. Estimates of the population at the time of European settlement in 1788 range from 300,000 to more than 1,000,000. Widespread European knowledge of Australia began with 17th-century explorations. The Dutch landed in 1616 and the British in 1688, but the first large-scale expedition was that of James Cook in 1770, which established Britain’s claim to Australia. The first English settlement, at Port Jackson (1788), consisted mainly of convicts and seamen; convicts were to make up a large proportion of the incoming settlers.” “By 1859 the colonial nuclei of all Australia’s states had been formed, but with devastating effects on the indigenous peoples, whose population declined sharply with the introduction of European diseases and weaponry. Britain granted its colonies limited self-government in the mid 19th century, and an act federating the colonies into a commonwealth was passed in 1900. Australia fought alongside the British in World War I, notably at Gallipoli, and again in World War II, preventing Australia’s occupation by the Japanese.” “It joined the U.S. in the Korean and Vietnam wars. Since the 1960s the government has sought to deal more fairly with the Aboriginals, and a loosening of immigration restrictions has led to a more heterogeneous population. Constitutional links allowing British interference in government were formally abolished in 1968, and Australia has assumed a leading role in Asian and Pacific affairs. During the 1990s it experienced several debates about giving up its British ties and becoming a republic.” In linguistic terms, Australian English starts in the second half of the eighteenth century when pidgin English appeared due to the interrelationship of settlers and Aboriginals. The Aboriginal vocabulary of Australian English has become one of the trademarks of the national language
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(boomerang, jumbuck –sheep-). Yet, the number of Aboriginal words in Australian English is quite small and confined to the naming of plants, trees, animals, and place-names. Nowadays, though English is the official language, Australian English is known for its preserving nature, since it still keeps eighteenth and nineteenth-century lexis from the European Continent (Wessex, Scotland, Ireland). Moreover, it has no regional variation of accent. Regarding its cultural diversity, since it is “the smallest continent and sixth largest country (in area) on Earth, lying between the Pacific and Indian oceans,” its population was about 19,702,000 in 2002. Among them, “most Australians are descendants of Europeans. The largest nonwhite minority is the Australian Aboriginals. The Asian portion of the population has grown as a result of relaxed immigration policy. Australia is rich in mineral resources, s the country’s economy is basically free-enterprise; its largest components include finance, manufacturing, and trade. Formally a constitutional monarchy, its chief of state is the British monarch, represented by the governor-general. In reality it is a parliamentary state with two legislative houses; its head of government is the prime minister.”
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New Zealand
New Zealand was originally inhabited by Polinesian population which traced back to the early Christian centuries. In the eighteenth century it was explored by J. Cook between 1769-1770 and soon it was a target for European settlement in spite of some indigenous Maori resistance. Then the 19th century saw the arrival of catholic missionaries and English protestants and the reorganization of New Zealand started. Subsequently, the two races achieved considerable harmony. Yet, unlike Australia it was a free colony, as in practice it has been self-determining since 1901. In linguistic terms, the New Zealand language has been influenced by its Australian neighbours (bush lawyer, bush telegraph) as well as by the Scottish language, namely in family names (Dunedin, Murray). From Australia, many Zealanders were influenced by the native Maori culture, hence many maori words were borrowed on making reference to animals, plants and local trees (kiwi). In addition, Zealanders created their own vocabulary for some places, roads and local places (lines). Regarding its cultural diversity, New Zealand still has a certain attachment to Britain that is unheard of Australia (BBC news) and contemporary population seem hesitant to use the pragmatic initiative used in the eighteenth century. The cultural background in New Zealand is actually conditioned by a society which is egalitarian in the extreme and shows a tendency towards conformity. Yet, today Maori people are determined to make their contribution to
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increase their self-respect and confidence in their own culture. Actually, Maori language is offered in many secondary schools as an optional second language.
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South Africa.
Before British colonization, certain highlands of East Africa attracted settlers from Europe since these colonies were confined to coastal enclaves. British penetration of the area began at Zanzibar in the late 19th century and before WWI most of the European conquest of Africa had been accomplished. Actually, in 1888 the British East Africa Company established claims to territory in what is now Kenya. British protectorates were subsequently established over the sultanate of Zanzibar and the kingdom of Buganda (now Uganda) and in 1919 Britain was awarded the former German territory of Tanganyika as a League of Nations mandate. Yet, all these territories achieved polit ical independence in the 1960s. In linguistic terms, the development of the English language in Africa is related to the term ‘pidgin’, hence ‘pidgin English’ is commonly spoken in Africa. Traditionally, pidgin languages are defined as those auxiliary languages that have no native speakers and are used for communicating between people who have no common language. Actually, we find two different English versions in Africa: East and West African English. On the one hand, East African Commonwealth countries had no contact with Britain until the early twentieth century when they were colonized, so the use of English was limited to military and administrative vocabulary (white administrators and army officials), still used in the East African states of Kenya. Yet, in Uganda and Tanzania, Swahili is the used as lingua franca and goes through ethnic and political boundaries whereas English is the main language of education (secondary, tertiary). So, we may say that the language of Black Africa is pidgin English, not standard British or American English (Uganda, Zambia, Simbabwe). On the other hand, West African Commonwealth countries use pidgin English as a result of the slave experience of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. For instance, in Sierra Leona, pidgin English has evolved into ‘Krio’, a mixture of English and an African language (Yoruba), with includes Portuguese elements, which is used everywhere. Brought by traders and missionaries to Nigeria and Cameroon, it influenced the local pidgin. Recent governments are trying to establish Krio as the national language of Sierra Leone, even though English is still the official language. Regarding its cultural diversity, we highlight the fact that in all African countries the majority of the population is indigenous, except in those African countries which belong to the
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Commonwealth and have European population (Zimbabwe, Zambia and Kenya). Hence, the most common population group within these countries are the ethnic groups, that is, tribes. This means that ethnic groups have in common a sense of culture and identity, and therefore, of distinct religion and language. The new African nations that emerged after the mid-20th century were not based on the traditional units of the pre-colonial era. African natural resources (mining, safari hunting) have attracted people of many different cultures speaking a variety of languages.
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India
Historically speaking, India is the home of one of the world’s oldest and most influential civilisations of South Asia. By the early seventeenth century, the East India Company was founded and attracted many European visitors up to the eighteenth century. In linguistic terms, it was in the nineteenth century that, at the highest peak of the British empire, there was a flood of English administrators, educators, army officers and missionaries who spread the English language throughout the sub-continent. Hence by the turn of the century English had become the prestige language of India. After a century, the Jewel of the Crown had added many Indian words into the English language, so as to be able to express different concepts. In addition, Indian English possesses a number of distinctive stylistic fatures, some of which are inspired by local languages and some by the influence of English educational traditions (change of heart vs. God is merciful). Nowadays, even after Indian’s independence (1947), there are more speakers of English in India than in Britain (over 70 million). English became the official language of everyday life at any sphere. It is worth noting that, though the speakers of English belonged to the educated ruling elite, English is taught at every stage of education in all the states of the country. Regarding its cultural diversity, India is regarded as a subcontinent rather than a country. Its wide range of races, languages and religions, art and culture show the cultural wealth that has developed over many centuries. Yet, there are still strong divisive influences such as caste, the status of untouchability and linguistic chauvinism. Another important aspect is that over 80 per cent of the country’s total population are Hindus, and also, that Hinduism is the unifying factor that has kept the large mass of the peoples of India together.
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•
The Caribeean Islands
The Commonwealth Caribbean Islands.have a distinctive history. The Encyclopaedia Britannica (2004) states that “permanently influenced by the experiences of colonialism and slavery, the Caribbean has produced a collection of societies that are markedly different in population composition from those in any other region of the world. Lying on the sparsely settled periphery of an irregularly populated continent, the region was “discovered” by Christopher Columbus in 1492. Thereafter, it became the springboard for the European invasion and domination of the Americas, a transformation that historian D. W. Meinig has aptly described as the "radical reshaping of America." “Beginning with the Spanish and Portuguese and continuing with the arrival more than a century later of other Europeans, the indigenous peoples of the Americas experienced a series of upheavals. The European intrusion abruptly interrupted the pattern of their historical development and linked them inextricably with the world beyond the Atlantic Ocean. It also severely altered their physical environment, introducing both new foods and new epidemic diseases. As a result, the native Indian populations rapidly declined and virtually disappeared from the Caribbean, although they bequeathed to the region a distinct cultural heritage that is still seen and felt.” “During the sixteenth century, the Caribbean region was significant to the Spanish empire. In the seventeenth century, the English, Dutch, and French established colonies. By the eighteenth century, the region contained colonies that were vitally important for all of the European powers because the colonies generated great wealth from the production and sale of sugar. The early English colonies, peopled and controlled by white settlers, were microcosms of English society, with small yeoman farming economies based mainly on tobacco and cotton. A major transformation occurred, however, with the establishment of the sugar plantation system.” “To meet the system’s enormous manpower requirements, vast numbers of black African slaves were imported throughout the eighteenth century, thereby reshaping the region’s demographic, social, and cultural profile. Although the white populations maintained their social and political preeminence, they became a numerical minority in all of the islands. Following the abolition of slavery in the mid-nineteenth century, the colonies turned to imported indentured labor from India, China, and the East Indies, further diversifying the region’s culture and society. The result of all these immigrations is a remarkable cultural heterogeneity in contemporary Caribbean society.” “The abolition of slavery was also a major watershed in Caribbean history in that it initiated the long, slow process of enfranchisement and political control by the nonwhite majorities in the
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islands. The early colonies enjoyed a relatively great amount of autonomy through the operations of their local representative assemblies. Later, however, for ease of administration and to facilitate control of increasingly assertive colonial representative bodies, the British adopted a system of direct administration known as crown colony government in which British appointed governors wielded nearly autocratic power. The history of the colonies from then until 1962 when the first colo nies became independent is marked by the rise of popular movements and labor organizations and the emergence of a generation of politicians who assumed positions of leadership when the colonial system in the British Caribbean was dismantled.” “Despite shared historical and cultural experiences and geographic, demographic, and economic similarities, the islands of the former British Caribbean empire remain diverse, and attempts at political federation and economic integration both prior to and following independence have foundered. Thus, the region today is characterized by a proliferation of mini-states, all with strong democratic traditions and political systems cast in the Westminster parliamentary mold, but all also with forceful individual identities and interests.” In linguistic terms, we may highlight the fact that the tiny Indian population, once native to the region, speak creolized forms of the invading European languages, and from this merging we obtained a Caribbean English and a Caribbean culture. Of all the varieties of Caribbean English, the most appealing is the Jamaican creole, defined as a language that has evolved from pidgins used by speakers of unintelligible people. So, we may differenciate two different types of language: on the one hand, standard English, used in newspapers and news reporting, engages in conversation, journalists; and on the other hand, Jamaican English, which is virtually unintelligible to the outsider since this is the language of the streets (originally oral, recently written). Regarding its cultural diversity, we may say that the Caribbean is fragmented since each island has its own strong loyalties and traditions. For example, Trinidad Island is heavily influenced by French, Spanish, Creole and Indian traditions. The most English of the islands are Jamaica, Antigua and Barbados. Nowadays, the Caribbean population is namely African and AfroEuropean in origin. Despite size, ancestry, language, history and population differences, the countries of the Caribbean share a common culture, the result of their parallel experiences as plantation colonies for distant European economic and politic powers. Jamaica has alwasy had a lively independent culture, namely reflected in this Third World nationalism and reggae music as the result of a mixed multi-cultural heritage.
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3. STEREOTYPES AND EMBLEMS IN ENGLISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES. Then, with this background in mind, Chapter 3 shall analyse the phenomenon of stereotypes and emblems in the main English-speaking countries. In doing so, we shall provide (1) a definition of both stereotypes and emblems; (2) typology of the main (a) stereotypes and (b) emblems, and (3) an analysis of the main stereotypes and emblems within the different Englishspeaking countries.
3.1. Definition: stereotypes and emblems.
First of all, the term ‘stereotype’ (also called cliché, archetype, stock character, outgroup homogeneity) is used metaphorically in modern usage, since it refers to “an oversimplified mental picture of some group of people who are sharing a certain characteristic (or stereotypical) qualities. The term is thus often used in a negative sense, with stereotypes being seen by many as illogical yet deeply held-beliefs that can only be changed through education” (wikipedia, 2004). The most common stereotypes include opposites, thus the good vs. the bad, the teenager vs. the adult, and so on. On the other hand, a national emblem is “a symbol that represents a nation. It may or may not appear on the national flag” and it “is usually something from the natural world” as an animal or a bird, but can also be any object.
3.2. Typology. 3.2.1.
Main stereotypes.
Common stereotypes include (a) groups of people in terms of personality (behaviour), appearance and dress, and (b) customs and traditions. Within the first group, people, we include, following wikipedia (2004), “the "hard-boiled" or tough private eye, the aging absent-minded professor, the ditzy busty blonde woman (“dumb blonde”), the dowdy librarian (who becomes instantly attractive when she takes her glasses off), the degenerate aristocrat with top hat, tuxedo, and monocle, the snobbish butler (speaking with a British English or other European accent), the nerdy scientist (with black wiry-framed glasses, black bowtie, white coat, speaking in technobabble).” “Similar, the short genius schoolkid, who wears glasses and uniform (“geek” or “dork”), the primly dressed schoolmarm with her pointer and “Now, class” address, the peg-legged pirate with an eye patch and parrot, the overweight, doughnut-eating cop who believes skateboarding
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is a crime, the prostitute with a heart of gold, the brightly colored court jester, the villain with black clothes, waxed moustache and generalized Central or Eastern European accent, the jolly Middle Eastern or South Asian cornershop owner with his collection of trinkets, the picky chef with his toque and piquant French accent, the overdelivering game show host with his giant smile, the confrontational gangster in his pinstripe suit from Armani or Versace, the tobaccospitting baseball player, the effeminate homosexual male, the butch lesbian, the old lady who sits on the porch, reminiscing and knitting, the violent, savage Indian warrior or scalper, the drunken Irishman, the wise and otherworldly African-American who helps a white character in crisis,” and finally, “the Anti-Semitic portrayals about the Jews.”
Within the second group, customs and traditions, we include, traditions and holidays. For instance, British pubs are regarded as a tradition, so it is a very typical custom to meet people there and have some drinks while talking to friends. Regarding holidays, we should highlight the relevance of national, regional and local bank holidays, such as Guy Fawke’s Day on November 5th , Christmas on 25th December or Halloween on 31st October. Actually, these dates are accompanied by costumes traditions such as dressing up on Halloween and an occasion for children to request treats or threatening tricks. Pumpkins are closely associated to this event; also, Guy Fawke’s Day, the Royal National Eisteddfod in Wales which takes place once a year, or the ‘Orange Day’ march in Belfast every year. We must not forget the Thanks-Giving Day as an annual national holiday which celebrates the harvest and other blessings of the past yearon the last Thrusday in November.
3.2.2.
Main emblems.
Among the main emblems we find animals, plants, trees, inanimate objects, symbols and even people. For instance, •
Animals are often associated to different countries as follows: the kangaroo, the crocodile and the koala represent Australia, and similarly the beaver (Canada), the condor and huemul (Chile), the lion (England, Czech Republic, Sweden and Finland), the crocodile (East Timor), the elephant (Laos), the kiwi (New Zealand), a white eagle (Poland), the golden bicephalic eagle or bear (Russia), the white bicephalic eagle (Serbia), the garuda (Thailand), the American bald eagle (the United States), and the red dragon (Wales).
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•
Plants are associated to countries as follows: maple leaf (Canada), copihue (Chile), rose (Engla nd) lily of the valley (Finland), lily (France), bauhinia (Hong Kong), chrysanthemum (Japan), Kimjongilia (North Korea), peony (People’s Republic of China), plum blossom (Taiwan), thistle (Scotland), King protea (South Africa), and finally, the daffodil or a leek (Wales).
•
Trees follow the following association: oak (England), birch (Finland), ceiba (Guatemala), cedar (Lebanon), baobab (Madagascar), lime (Slovenia), and finally, the real yellowwood (South Africa).
•
inanimate objects include mate (Argentina), checkerboard (Croatia), the Lion Capital of Asoka with the spinning wheel (India), harp (Ireland), hammer and sickle (Soviet Union), and the three Crowns (Sweden).
•
symbols include the star of David (Israel), star and crescent (Pakistan), serbian cross (serbia), the patriarchal cross and three mountains (slovakia), and the Yin Yang (South Korea). Also, flags, heraldry, currency, anthems, buildings and monuments, natural features, items of food, drink and clothes are included here.
•
And finally, people references as follows, Marianne (France), Mother Svea (Sweden), Britannia and John Bull (the United Kingdom), and Columbia, Uncle Sam and Lady Liberty (the United States). Also, living figures such as Presidents, sport stars as well as media stars (fashion, music, cinema, radio, TV).
3.3. Stereotypes and emblems in English-speaking countries. In this section we shall try to provide, in general terms, the main stereotypes regarding (a) groups of people in terms of personality (behaviour), appearance and dress, and (b) customs and traditions; together with the main emblems (animals, plants, trees, inanimate objects, symbols and even people) within English-speaking countries. In the monthly magazine ‘Think in English’ (nº 56, pg. 23), there is an interesting article about society untitled ‘How (not) to be a foreigner.’ In fact, communicating in a foreign language does not mean the speakers have achieved the whole communicative competence since we have linguistic, non-linguistic and socio-cultural aspects to overcome. So, a foreign speaker of English must take into account those social and cultural rules of the English-speaking country to
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eventually fit in it. Actually, “if you follow what is considered polite in your society you shouldn’t cause too much offence. Most cases in which outsiders cause scandal are obvious things like sacrificing animals in the street” (regarding Muslim and other minority religions). “However, there are a few thing that are more acceptable in other societies than in Britain and it’s better to avoid them. This of course works the other way round too. For example, stretching in public in Britain and America is not particularly frowned upon but can cause offence in continental Europe. Anyway, back to Britain; here are the eight things you must avoid if you want to integrate: •
Spitting: in some Mediterranean countries spitting is relatively acceptable, at least for men This is far from true in the UK and spitting in public should be avoided at all costs. Only punks ans skinheads spit in Britain.
•
Talking loudly : you may be surprised to hear that this is the faux-pas of continental Europeans and Latins that probably causes offence most frequently in Britain. Moderate your volume.
•
Stifle that sneeze or cough: for some people as long as you don’t actually squeeze or cough over someone it doesn’t matter if you don’t put your hand to your mouth when you sneeze. This is not so in the UK and you should always stifle your sneeze/cough. If you sneeze, those around you will probably sya “Bless you!” and you can answer “Excuse me” and you’re there –you’ve integrated!
•
Don’t dunk: in many countries it is normal to dip or “dunk” cake and other types of food in coffee, especially at breakfast. At best this will be considered very childish in Britain, and at worst rude.
•
“Tnx” for “yes”: this will no doubt seem absurd but I know cases of British people being highly offended by foreigners making a “tnx” sound to say “yes”. You don’t have to say “yes” or “yeah” but the sounds that are socially acceptable are “uh-huh” and “hmmm”.
•
Don’t stand too close: this is a faux-pas (mistake of etiquette) particulary associated with Americans, but other visitors may also commit this mistake. The British like a good arm’s lenght distance between them when they talk to each other and, if you want to fit in, you should respect this.
•
Watch that contact: cultures that are less emotionally-challenged are happy for acquaintances (as opposed to family and lovers) to touch each other. Of course, as every psychologist will tell you, friendly physical contact is very healthy... but the British are different: avoid hands on shoulders, etc.
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•
Finally, kissing: this friendly natural gesture between continental Europeans and Latins can be quite traumatic for your average Briton. Interestingly, many Enlgish-speaking natives will join in the kissing with such foreigners but will studiously avoid it with other English-speaking natives in the same social gathering – unwritten rules.”
As we can see, every culture has its own rules of etiquette. It is worth remembering that, though they are ‘invisible’ since they are not written anywhere, they mark the difference between being integrated or not in the foreign culture. Let us examine other stereotypes regarding physical appearance and clothes. For instance, regarding physical appearance, the inhabitants of the British Isles are associated with a pale, blond, light-eyed and thin appearance as opposed to the Mediterranean dark complexion and strong constitution. Yet, we find stereotypes that break with the rule, note the British Pierce Brosnan or the Scottish actor Sean Connery, who is supposed to have red curly hair and pale face with freckles. Yet, other stereotypes coincide with the rule in the description of Welsh people as dark hair with dark eyes as the Welsh Katherine Zeta Jones or the Irish music group the Coors, which are said to be red-haired with blue eyes or dark-haired with dark eyes.has are described. Also, Australian people coincide mostly with their description, muscular and tanned people with blond hair and green eyes, as the character of the famous film ‘Cocrodile Dundee’. Yet, it is not so easy to draw a picture of the typical American since the mix of cultures (called ‘melting pot’) there increases difficulty in this task, as it is not of Spanish people because of the way of featuring Manuel, the Spanish waiter, in the BBC TV series ‘Fawlty Towers’. Also, the stereotypical dressing proves relevant in the distinction of nationalities and even, in the creation of literary and film characters. For instance, the Scottish national dress, a tartan pleated skirt which is worn with a shirt, jacket and tie, and often a waistcoat, with underbreeches under it. An English stereotype is the English gentleman, dressed in black with a white shirt and a bow tie, with a black hat, thin moustache, and a binocular; or Sherlock Holmes, who has been portrayed in his knickerbockers, tweed cape and jacket, deerstalker hat, plus fours and brogues. Similarly, his assistant, Holmes with his black shiny bowler hat, black suit, waistcoat, briefcase and umbrella. We must not forget the stereotype of the English policeman, the ‘bobby’ in a black uniform and helment walking the streets in English towns; or the American cowboy, which will be always remembered in a 10-Gallon hat, leather chaps on the outside part of the legs on the trousers, leather waist-coast, plaid shirt, neckerchief with a leather accessory with two weights on the ends; or Hawaia n people dressed in flowery shirts at a beach surrounded by palm trees.
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Regarding stereotypical behaviours it is worth mentioning English people as ‘polite, punctual, proud and distant’; Australiam men as ‘chovinist’, Scottish and Irish as ‘loud voices’, Other stereotypes refer to traditions in food and drink or sports. Thus, steroeotypical Australians sepend their days surfing on a beach while English people play cricket and rugby, Scottish play golf and Highland games (throwing the hammer, tossing the caber), and Americans play baseball or basketball. Also, regarding food and dr ink, it is worth mentioning the culture of cheese since there are over 400 varieties of cheese produced in England (Cheddar, Lancashire Cheese, Stilton, the smooth Derby, British Parmesan, Gruyere, and so on); English beer (called ‘ales’) which enjoys a fine world-wide reputation (Newcastle Brown Ale, Old Speckled Hen, Fullers London Pride, O’Hanlon’s Port Stout) since they are made with old brewing techniques; as well as the Scottish whiskey. Regarding sports, the most famous football team in England, the Manchester United and the most acclaimed football star, David Beckam. Regarding the main emblems, among the most famous animals are the red Welsh dragon, the Australian kangaroo, crocodile and koala, the Canadian beaver, the English lion, the New Zealand kiwi, and the American bald eagle. Regarding plants, we highlight the Canadian maple leaf, the English rose (hence Elton John’s hymn for Lady Di), the Scottish thistle and the daffodil or a leek in Wales. Among the trees we include the English oak and the real yellowwood in South Africa. Moreover, among inanimate objects we include the Lion Capital of Asoka with the spinning wheel in India, the harp Ireland, and the three Crowns in Sweden. Symbols include official ones, such as flags, thus the United Kingdom Union Jack which combines the flags of England, Scotland and North Ireland and is part of the flags of such Commonwealth nations as Australia, Fiji, New Zealand and Hawaii; the English flag with Saint George Cross (a red cross and bordered with white since it is not permissible red on blue in heraldry; the Scottish flag with the Saint Andrew Cross (a diagonal white cross on blue); Northern Ireland’s flag with the Sain Patrick Cross (a diagonal red cross on white); the Australian flag, which has the Union Jack in the upper dial, being the rest blue with white stars (one big star under the Union Jack, and five on the right). Regarding heraldry, the crest is automatically included in any grant of arms made in England, Scotland, or North Ireland (the object placed on top of the helmet, bound into by the wreath of colours). With respect to currency, we namely find the pound sterling as a sign of England and Scotland, the Irish pound for the Republic of Ireland, and the dollar as a sign of the United States and Australia. Following on national symbols, we find anthems, which are hymns or songs which express patriotic feelings either politically or popularly authorized, hence “God
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Save the Queen” as the oldest national anthem (1825) or “The Star-Spangled Banner” in the United States. Other symbols include unofficial ones, such as buildings and monuments which are representative of the English-speaking country, for instance, the Buckingham Palace, Westminster Palace (or the Houses of Parliament), the Big Ben and Picadilly Circus in England; Balmoral Castle, Edinburgh Castle, the National Portrait Gallery and the Scottish Museum in Scotland, Caernarvon Castle in Wales; the White House, the Statue of Liberty and the Empire State Building in the US, or the Opera House of Sydney in Australia. Among the most outstanding natural features, we shall mention the river Thames in England, the Loch Ness and Ben Nevis in Scotland, the region of Snowdonia in Wales, the large Irish meadows with turberas breeding, and the Grand Canyon in the US. If items of food, drink and clothes are to be included here we shall mention the Yorkshire pudding, fish and chips, roast beef with potatoes and English cheese; regarding drinks, we shall include gin as the English national liquor whereas in Scotland we find whiskey and Scotch Broth (a soup of vegetables with oats). Moreover, the Irish menu includes an excelent variety of orchard products meat and fish. The favourite Irish drinks are whisky, liquors with honey, coffee or chocolate, adn stout, which is a type of dark beer which everybody knows as Guinness (a national trademark). American food is characterized by hamburgers, fast food and drinks are represented by coffee and beer.
4. ENGLISH SONGS AS A VEHICLE OF CULTURAL INFLUENCE. Chapter 4 shall address the phenomenon of English songs as a vehicle of cultural influence by providing (1) definition and typology and then, stating the relevance of (2) English songs as as a vehicle of cultural influence (a) through the media and (b) through education. 4.1. Definition and typology.
It is amazing how these “relatively short musical compositions for the human voice”, that is, English songs can have such a relevant role in the transmission of culture. Yet, since ancient times, songs and hymns were related to magic powers and throughout time, they have kept that magic influence on people. Actually, popular songs are often a part of individual and cultural, but seldom national, identity. Performers usually often have not undergone formal voice training
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but highly stylized vocal techniques are used. On the other hand, folk songs are often of anonymous origins since they were public domain and were transmitted orally. These are in fact the major aspect of national or cultural identity. Folk songs exists in virtually if not every culture. There are as many definitions for music as many divisions and groupings of music, many of which are as hotly contested as, and even caught up in, the argument over the definition of music. Yet, among the larger genres are classical music, popular music or commercial music (including pop music, hip hop, rock and roll) and folk music. Also, the term world music is applied to a wide range of music made outside of Europe and European influence, although its initial application, in the context of the World Music Program at Wesleyan University, was as a term including all possible musics, and not excluding European traditions. Following wikipedia (2004), “genres of music are as often determined by tradition and presentation as by the actual music. While most classical music is acoustical in nature, and meant to be performed by individuals, many works include samples, tape, or are mechanical, and yet described as "classical". Some works, for example Gershwin’s Rhapsody in Blue, are claimed by both Jazz and Classical Music. As cultures of the world have been in more contact with each other, their indigenous music styles have often melded to form new styles. For example, the U.S.-American bluegrass style has elements from Anglo-Irish, Scottish, Irish, German and some African-American instrumental and vocal traditions, and can only have been a product of the 20th Century.”
4.2. English songs as a vehicle of cultural influence. 4.2.1. Through the media.
Nowadays, the music we make “can be heard through several media, the most traditional way is to hear it live, in the presence, or as one of, the musicians. Live music can also be broadcast over the radio or television. Some musical styles focus on producing a sound for a performance, while others focus on producing a recording which mixes together sounds which were never played "live". Recording, even of styles which are essentially live often uses the ability to edit and splice to produce recordings which are considered "better" than the actual performance. In many cultures there is less distinction between performing and listening to music, as virtually everyone is involved in some sort of musical activity, often communal. Sometime in the middle 20th century, listening to music through a recorded form, such as sound recording or watching a
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music video became more common than experiencing live performance. Sometimes, live performances incorporate prerecorded sounds (i.e. DJ using records for scratching).
4.2.2. Through education.
Following wikipedia (2004), “many people compose, perform, and improvise music with no training and feel no need for training, including entire cultures. Other cultures have traditions of rigorous formal training that may take years and serious dedication. Sometimes this training takes the form of apprenticeship, as in Indian training traditionally take more years than a college education and involves spiritual discipline and reverence for one’s guru or teacher. In Bali everyone learns and practices together. It is also common for people to take music lessons, short private study sessions with an individual teacher, when they want to learn to play or compose music, usually for a fee. The most famous private composition teacher is Nadia Boulanger.”
Also, “the incorporation of music performance and theory into a general liberal arts curriculum, from pre-school to postsecondary education, is relatively common. Western style secondary schooling is increasingly common around the world. Meanwhile, western schools are increasingly including the study of the music of other cultures such as the Balinese gamelan, of which there are currently more than 200 in America.” In fact, songs have come to occupy a central role int he teaching and learning of English as a foreign language for two main reasons.
First of all, singing and musical activities are genrally acknowledged to be an important part of a hcild’s learning process. Most English children, for instance, learn the alphabet through a simple song and many infants’ songs (lullabies) involve games, rhymes with numbers, and rhythmic and melodic patters. Secondly, songs are valuable as potential motivators of students since they feel attracted by the most famous singers in the worldwide panorama: Madonna, Britney Spears, Blur, and so on. Since the birth of rock and roll in the 1950s up to the present day the mantle of stardom has appealed young people and, for our purposes, our students so as to imitate their idols. Hence since they do not relate learning songs (in terms of linguistic content –form, vocabulary, pronunciation) with hard work, learning comes easily.
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5. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING. Society and culture is one of the most outstanding aspects of educational activity and, for our purposes, it is the vehicle for better understanding and awareness of the English-speaking countries culture. In the classroom setting all kinds of social and linguistic aspects of language may be brought to students in terms of cultural awareness so as to bring them closer to the world’s reality: the relevance of the European and international framework nowadays. Yet, how is this issue linked to our Spanish students? Basically , through the educational activity, both in and out the classroom, the former being developed in terms of tutorial or classroom activities and the latter by focusing on sociocultural aspects that exist within the students’ environment (home, friends, the media). We may handle in class stereotypes and emblems from English-speaking and non Englishspeaking countries so as to make relevant the comparison to the Spanish ones regarding outstanding differences (food, drinks, clothes, traditions, physical appearance). So, many of these stereotypes may become familiar to Spanish students thanks to the presence of the media nowadays (press, radio, television, the Internet) in terms of transmitting physical and mental images. Hence it makes sense to examine the social and cultural background of Englishspeaking countries. Currently, educational authorities are bringing about relevant changes for the school reality with the yearly international exchanges of British-Spanish language assistants in schools so as to promote the learning of the English language with native speakers. Actually, they can make students aware of certain sociocultural aspects of Britain and encourage them to use the British media to get informed through new technologies, such as the Internet (through the Aula Plumier), since we can acceed to press, radio and television on the web. Also, the integration of Spain into the European Union makes relevant for students to become aware of social and cultural features of other countries so as to be able to appreciate the main similarities and differences with the Spanish one. Also, this social and cultural dimension of the English language may be easily approached to students by the increasing number of European programs (Comenius, Erasmus, school trips) and technologies (the Internet, mobile phones, mail) which provide students with authentic material in context so as to get acquainted with other ways of life around Europe and overseas. Actually, among the stage objectives for both E.S.O. and Bachillerato students (stated respectively in RD 112 and RD 113/2002, 13 September) there is a clear reference to the fact of getting acquainted
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with other cultures so as to promote respect and, for our purposes, an attitude of critical awareness of other language systems. Thus, E.S.O. objectives (9-13) make reference to: •
Analyse the mechanisms and values that govern the functioning of societies, especially those related to the rights and duties of citizens, adopting open and democratic attitudes and judgements (objective 9).
•
Know, respect and value the traditions and the natural, historical and artistic patrimony of the Region of Murcia, analysing its basic elements and contribute to its conservation and improvement (objetive 10).
•
Know the traditions and cultural patrimony of other countries, value them critically, and respect the cultural and linguistic diversity as a people’s and countries’ right (objetive 11).
•
Know the beliefs, attitudes and basic values of our tradition valuing them critically (objective 12).
•
And establish relations with other people based on respect and integrate in a participative way in group activities, developing attitudes of solidarity and tolerance and reject any type of discrimination, overcoming prejudices with a critical, open and democratic spirit (objective 13).
Furthermore, within the Foreign Language General Objectives (8, 9, 10), we find a closer approach to the cultural dimension of English when saying that students are expected to “accede to the knowledge of the culture transmitted by the foreign language, developing respect towards it and its speakers, to achieve a better understanding between countries” (objective 8); “recognise the value of foreign languages as a means of communication between people belonging to different cultures and as an enriching element for social and interpersonal relations” (objective 9); and “use the foreign language as a means of communication with a ludic and creative attitude and enjoy its use” (objective 10). On the other hand, Bachillerato students are expected to “understand and know how to express oneself fluently and correctly in the foreign language or languages being studied” (objective 2); “to use the information and communication technologies to acquire types of knowledge and transmit information, solve problems and facilitate interpersonal relations, valuing its use critically” (objective 7); and “to show interest in integrating oneself fully in one’s social and natural environment and participate respectfully and with solidarity in its development and improvement” (objetive 8).
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Furthermore, within the Foreign Language General Objectives (2, 6, 7), we find a closer approach to the cultural dimension of English when saying that students are expected to “understand and interpret oral texts critically, written texts, and visuals issued in habitual communicative situations and by mass media,” that is, stereotypes or emblems (objective 2); “know the sociocultural aspects of the target language as a means to improve communication in the foreign language and for the critical knowledge of one’s own culture” (objective 6) and also, to “value the importance of the study of foreign languages as an element of understanding and encouragement of respect and consideration towards other cultures” (objective 7). Actually, the success partly lies in the way this issue becomes real to the users since theory about society and culture, stereotypes and emblems and songs, only becomes relevant when students have the opportunity to experience it by their own in and out the classroom setting. This is to be achieved within the framework of the European Council (1998) and, in particular, the Spanish Educational System which establishes a common reference framework for the teaching of foreign languages where students are intended to broaden their personal, academic and professional horizons beyond the frontiers of other European countries (grants, European programmes, courses) and, for our purposes, in any of the English-speaking countries. Broadly speaking, the final aim is for students to be aware of their current social reality through the cultural issue in the English language.
6. CONCLUSION.
As we have seen, Unit 69 has provided a useful introduction to society and culture within the scope of stereotypes and emblems of English-speaking countries by addressing the question of English songs as a vehicle of cultural influence. So, Chapter 2 has provided a general introduction to the concepts of society and culture in relation to the English language and has established a link between the terms ‘la nguage, society and culture’. First, by redefining certain concepts that may be misleading within this framework (Great Britain vs. the United Kingdom; society vs. culture); secondly, by establishin the cultural and social connection to the English language as a cultural and social means; third, listing a typology of issues to deal with when we refer to society; and similarly, regarding culture; and finally, by discussingt common features which were shared by different societies and cultures in the English-speaking countries in and out of the United Kingdom at international level.
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Next, Chapter 3 has analysed the phenomenon of stereotypes and emblems in the main Englishspeaking countries by providing a definition of both stereotypes and emblems; a typology of the main stereotypes and emblems, and an analysis of the main stereotypes and emblems within the different English-speaking countries. And finally, with this background in mind, Chapter 4 has addressed the phenomenon of English songs as a vehicle of cultural influence by providing definition and typology and then, stating the relevance of English songs as as a vehicle of cultural influence through the media and through education.
So far, we have attempted to provide the reader with a general overview of the influence of language, society and culture on ourselves through the scope of stereotypes and emblems in and out the United Kingdom. This information is relevant for language learners, even 2nd year Bachillerato students, who automatically detect stereotypes between different cultures and, in other occasions, may not. So, learners need to have these associations brought to their attention in socio-cultural aspects within cross-curricular settings (Spanish language, history, technology –format, presentation). As we have seen, understanding how stereotypes, language, society and culture are reflected in our world today through songs is important to students, who are expected to be aware of the richness of the English language, not only in English-speaking countries, but also in worldwide terms.
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7. BIBLIOGRAPHY. - B.O.E. 2002. Consejería de Educación y Cultura. Decreto N.º 112/2002, de 13 de septiembre. Currículo de la Educación Secundaria Obligatoria en la Comunidad Autónoma de la Región de Murcia. - B.O.E. 2002. Consejería de Educación y Cultura. Decreto N.º 113/2002, de 13 de septiembre. Currículo de Bachillerato en la Comunidad Autónoma de la Región de Murcia. - Bromhead, Peter. 1962. Life in Modern Britain. Longman. - Council of Europe (1998) Modern Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common European Framework of reference. - McLean, A. 1993. Profile UK. Heinemann, Oxford. - Vaughan-Rees, M. 1995. In Britain. Richmond Publishing Editors.
Other sources include: "British Empire." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. 2004. Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. 28 May 2004 . The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2003, Columbia University Press www.wikipedia.org (2004) www.bbc.co.uk (2004)
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