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Beethoven’s 32 Piano Sonatas

 

 

Beethoven’s 32 Piano Sonatas A Handbook for Performers

S T E WA RT   G O R D O N

1

 

1 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and certain other countries. Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America. © Oxford University Press 2017 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above. You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer. Library of Congress Cataloging-​in-​Publication Data Names: Gordon, Stewart, 1930– author. Title: Beethoven’s 32 piano sonatas : a handbook for performers / by Stewart Gordon. Other titles: Beethoven’s 32 piano sonatas Description: New York : Oxford University Press, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016014659 | ISBN 9780190629175 (hardcover : alk. paper) | ISBN 9780190629182 (pbk. : alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Beethoven, Ludwig van, 1770–1827. Sonatas, piano. | Piano music— Interpretation (Phrasing, dynamics, etc.) | Performance practice (Music) | Sonatas (Piano)— Analysis, appreciation. Classification: LCC ML410.B42 G67 2017 | DDC 786.2/183092—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016014659 1 3  5 7 9 8 6 4 2 Paperback printed by WebCom, Inc., Canada Hardback printed by Bridgeport National Bindery, Inc., United States of America

 

CONTENTS

Preface  vii Measure Numbering  Abbreviations  xi

ix

PART I  CONSIDER ATIONS

1. Sources 

3

2. Beethoven and the Piano  3. Performance Practices 

11

23

4. Beethoven’s Expressive Legacy 

51

5. The Windmills of Beethoven’s Mind 

79

PART II   THE SONATA S

The Opus 2 Set  Opus 7 

95

113

The Opus 10 Set 

119

Opus 13 (“Pathétique”)  The Opus 14 Set  Opus 22 

145

Opus 26 

149

133

139

v

 

Contents

vi

The Opus 27 Set: Sonatas Like a Fantasy; no. 2 (“Moonlight”)  Opus 28 (“Pastoral”) 

165

The Opus 31 Set: no. 2 (“Tempest”); no. 3 (“Hunt”)  The Opus 49 Set: Two “Easy” Sonatas  Opus 53 (“Waldstein”)  Opus 54 

189

197

Opus 57 (“Appassionata”)  Opus 78 

201

211

Opus 79 (“alla tedesca”) 

215

Opus 81a (“Lebewohl”) 

219

Opus 90  Opus 101 

227 231

Opus 106 (“Hammerklavier”)  Opus 109 

249

Opus 110 

255

Opus 111 

261

Selected Bibliography  Index  269

267

239

185

171

155

 

P R E FA C E

The genesis of this book on the piano sonatas of Beethoven explains its concept to a great extent. After the appearance of my edition of the sonatas, my professional friend and editor at that time, Maribeth Anderson Payne, challenged me to write a companion book to the edition. I expressed hesitation, citing the many books on the sonatas that had been written by distinguished musicians, some very recently. My friend responded that she assumed much of my research was not able to be included in the edition itself and that my perspectives might be different from those of other authors. The exchange inspired me to undertake the challenge of writing this book and influenced its concept. As a professional pianist, I  have played and taught these works for many years. I  have ideas as to how they should sound, these mostly derived from my views of the composer’s intentions. Even so, I recognize that similarly motivated musicians arrive at different interpretations of the music. This recognition caused me to eschew writing a book that was a collection of my ideas about playing these works according to my convictions. Rather, I  conceived a volume that would be valuable to performers, but one that simply collected information and made observations about the sonatas. Thus the first section of the book addresses sources, period pianos, performance practices, and characteristics of Beethoven’s piano writing. I  could not resist including speculations as to how the composer might have thought about various keys and key relationships, as well as subliminal or conscious connections between movements of the sonatas and between different sonatas. The second section of the book considers each sonata, providing selected historical information, distinguishing features, and a descriptive analysis. The book is, thus, intended to be a source of information about each of these sonatas, organized in an easily accessible format. My hope is that performers who undertake learning one of these sonatas will consult the book and that doing so will provide insights into the work under consideration, the challenges to be faced, and

vii

 

viii

Preface

the decisions to be made. Perhaps it will even generate a measure of inspiration for the fusion that often takes place between this great music and the performers who undertake to re-​create it. I offer my appreciation to Maribeth Anderson Payne for urging me to write this book. I also express gratitude to my students at the Thornton School of Music of the University of Southern California. I am constantly inspired and sustained by their talent and vitality. I may be their professor, but I am sure I learn more from them than I teach them. On a personal level, I want to thank my life partner John Christopher Rennolds for putting up with the professor who spent so much time off in a corner writing a book about the Beethoven piano sonatas. Stewart Gordon Claremont, California March 2016

 

ME A SURE NUMBERIN G

Publications use two procedures for numbering measures in piano scores. The more frequently encountered does not accord second ending measures a separate number or numbers. The less frequently encountered system accords measure numbers to first and second endings. This difference results in discrepancies in measure numbers for all measures that occur after a repeat that is attended by first-​and second-​ ending measures. The text of this volume has indicated measure numbers for both systems, the first set of numbers for the system that does not count second endings as separate measures, the second set of numbers in parentheses for the system that counts second-​ending measures.

ix

 

 

A B B R E V I AT I O N S

AND Anderson, Emily, trans. and ed. The Letters of Beethoven. 3 vols. London: Macmillan, 1961. CZY

Czerny, Carl. On the Proper Performance of All Beethoven’s Works for the Piano, ed. Paul Badura-​Skoda. Vienna: Universal Edition, 1970. This is a reprint of Part Four of Czerny’s 1839 Complete Theoretical and Practical Pianoforte School, Op. 500.

xi

 

 

Beethoven’s 32 Piano Sonatas

 

 

PA RT   I

CONSIDERATIONS

 

 

1

Sources

Sources for the Beethoven piano sonatas are autographs, other manuscripts, first and early editions, and sketchbooks. These sources are supplemented to some extent by written accounts by the composer’s contemporaries. The music sources differ in a surprisingly large number of details, including notes, rhythms, marks of articulation and expression, pedal indications, and repeat signs. For much of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries these discrepancies were resolved by editors, and their choices were shown on the printed page, often without reference to alternatives. From the mid-​twentieth century the concept of trying to re-​create music as the composer heard it became increasingly powerful. The rise of musicology as a discipline underscored the concept of being faithful to the composer’ intentions. Moreover, technology made research into the past more accessible. As a result, editors began to include more detail with regard to discrepancies and possible alternatives, and performers became more involved in making decisions that reflected their personal convictions as to the intent of the composer. Many of today’s performers wish to study the source material of the sonatas, examine each discrepancy on a case-​by-​case basis, and assess which version seems most valid, taking into account both musical impact and historic origin. The autographs, other manuscripts, and first and early editions provide the most detailed information. Sketchbooks often offer valuable information about the evolution of the composer’s ideas. Written descriptions are usually more general. They are surely influenced by the tastes of their authors, but they often provide insights into the composer’s personality and the cultural milieu of his time.

Autographs and Manuscripts Autographs are defined as manuscripts deemed to be in the composer’s handwriting. Thirteen autographs for the piano sonatas are extant, two of them incomplete, the op. 27, no. 2, missing first and last pages, and the op. 81a missing the second and third movements. Some autographs have histories of ownership that can be traced. All are in various library or museum collections. Photocopies of them have been

3

 

4

Considerations

published periodically over the past century. Recent photocopy publications are easily available, whereas earlier ones are rare and more difficult to find. It would seem logical to regard the autographs as the final authority where discrepancies exist. If these documents are in the composer’s own hand, why would they not be the supreme source? This notion needs to be tendered with caution. In the throes of creating his music, Beethoven wrote it down as he heard it inwardly, resulting in pages that exhibit both haste generated by the heat of inspiration and frequent revision. Such autographs contain notes, phrases, and sections that are scratched out and rewritten, shorthand symbols for repeated passages, notes crushed together, handwritten staves at the ends of lines, and the use of letters to indicate pitches in cluttered places. Moreover, articulation is often unclear, showing hastily scribbled phrase or slur lines and dots or wedges with different thicknesses and shapes. Indeed, Beethoven’s autographs have a reputation for being extremely messy. Autographs of this type have been given the term Urschrift. At some point, the composer prepared a second autograph for the publisher, one that was cleaner and easier to read. Such an autograph has been given the term Reinschrift. Most of the latter have been lost, for publishers did not preserve them after the engraving was completed. A few believed to be Reinschriften were found among Beethoven’s effects, probably prepared in order to correct errors in published material but never sent. It is easy to imagine that in preparing a Reinschrift, the composer might have corrected errors or made small changes as he went along, but he might not have gone back and changed the Urschrift. If such were the case, the published version could represent the composer’s intention more accurately than the earlier autograph. There are many examples wherein the first edition differs from the autograph. To cite one of the best known, measure 105 (107) of the first movement of the op. 53 shows an F♭ in the autograph but an F (without the flat) in the first edition, the difference implying different harmonic progressions. Significant discrepancies of this type are noted for each sonata in the section of this book devoted to individual works.

Sketches Beethoven constantly sketched musical ideas in bound books and notebooks and on loose leaves of paper. This practice preserved ideas and stimulated creativity. Many sketches were revised and found their way into formal compositions. Others were never used. He must have valued these sketches, for he did not discard them, even moving them with his personal effects when he changed residences. After the composer’s death some of this material was lost, but much of it, although scattered, was preserved

 

Source s

5

Scholars study sketches in order to gain knowledge of the composer’s creative process. In the 1970s a much-​needed overview of the Beethoven sketches was undertaken by Douglas Johnson, Alan Tyson, and Robert Winter. Their project culminated ten years later in the publication of a volume summarizing the history, reconstruction, and inventory of the sketches. Sketches exist for almost all of the piano sonatas. However, most pianists do not take time to examine them when preparing performances of the sonatas, presumably because they do not represent Beethoven’s final product. Even so, sketches sometimes clarify contradictions between the manuscripts and early editions, and studying the evolution of the music offers insights into the composer’s creative process.

First and Early Editions Beethoven submitted his piano sonatas to a variety of publishers. Early in his career he concluded negotiations for each sonata with a single publisher. Starting about 1807 he began negotiating with multiple publishers, mainly those in Vienna, Berlin, Bonn, Paris, and London. This practice was possible because marketing and distribution were limited to smaller areas and international copyright regulation was nonexistent. That publishers preferred exclusive publication rights is suggested by Beethoven’s letter to Breitkopf & Härtel dated August 31, 1810:  “I have by no means made arrangements with Paris or France for all these works … A copy on the Continent is absolutely out of the question; and I think it highly improbable that these works have now arrived in London … In short, I am convinced that by September not a single note of the works I sent you will have yet been published.”1 Despite possible objections by publishers, Beethoven continued to seek multiple releases, in part because of financial problems generated by the erosion of support from the nobility owing to political conditions, and in part because of expenses incurred when the composer began to assume responsibility for his nephew Carl. Indeed, Beethoven was apparently willing to adopt considerable flexibility so as to get works published at this point in his career. In a letter to his friend Ferdinand Ries (1784–​1838) dated March 20, 1819, the composer stated that his income had vanished, in part because the Archduke Rudolf (1788–​1831) was in bad financial straits. Then he instructed Ries to negotiate the publication of the op. 106: “Should the sonata not be suitable for London, I could send another one; or you could omit the largo and begin straight away with the fugue … which is the last movement; or you could use the first movement and then the Adagio, and then for the third movement   AND I:283–​4.

1

 

Considerations

6

the Scherzo—​and omit entirely no. 4 and the Largo and Allegro risoluto. Or you could take just the first movement and the Scherzo and let them form the whole sonata. I leave it to you to do as you think best.”2 Starting with the op.  79 Beethoven forged concurrent agreements with more than one publisher. In some cases dates of publication announcements are so close together that it is difficult to decide which edition should be deemed the first. At one point, the publisher Adolf Martin Schlesinger (1769–​1838) released separately engraved sonatas in both Berlin and Paris. In all of these cases discrepancies exist between publications. Moreover, there is evidence that early or first editions contained engraving errors. Two examples may be cited. The Swiss publisher Hans Georg Nägeli (1773–​1836) published the first two of the op. 31 set of sonatas without having sent copy back to Beethoven for proofreading. When Beethoven saw the publication he was extremely upset, because he found many errors and, in one instance, added measures. He immediately directed his brother to prepare a list of errors and send it, along with the sonatas, to the Viennese publisher Giovanni Cappi (1765–​​1815), who published a “corrected” edition a few months later. In the second instance, Beethoven wrote to Schlesinger on August 31, 1822, referring to the publication of the op. 110: “In the sonata … there have been found some mistakes of which you are being informed so that they may be corrected … For it is unpleasant for me if my works come out so full of mistakes.”3 First editions are readily available in reprints at the present time, the complete set having been edited by Brian Jeffrey. These reproductions provide visual evidence of the many challenges performers face in trying to determine the exact intent of the composer. The more popular sonatas were published by different publishers a few years apart, for limited marketing capabilities made it desirable to issue multiple publications. The op. 13 (“Pathétique”) for example, was published seventeen times in Beethoven’s lifetime. These publications often show discrepancies. In most cases, it is impossible to determine how involved the composer was in either proofreading or correcting mistakes. Discrepancies between available autographs and first editions for each sonata are recorded in the relevant chapter in part II of this book.

Later Editions Probably no body of piano music has been given as much editorial attention as the Beethoven sonatas. Within a few years after these works were created, they were   AND II:804-​5.   AND II:965.

2 3

 

Source s

7

edited by other musicians and reissued. These publications reflect the editorial fashion of their time. Throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the editor acted as a revisionist and interpreter, one who corrected alleged mistakes in earlier sources but also added interpretive markings and performance aids such as fingering. Many of these editions do not distinguish between the composer’s indications and editorial additions. This group is represented by editions of Carl Czerny (1842 and 1850), Ignaz Moscheles (1858), Louis Köhler (c.1865 with fingering added later by Adolf Rudhardt), Hans von Bülow and Sigmund Lebert (1894), Carl Reinecke (1895), Eugen d’Albert (1902), and Frederic Lamond (1923). Several of these editions are currently available, notably those of Köhler/​Rudhardt, Bülow/​Lebert, and d’Albert. By the turn of the twentieth century, many editions began to focus on conveying the original text. These so-​called urtext editions used early sources as a point of departure and attempted to shore up inconsistencies, eschewing all extra editorial markings including fingering. The urtexts reflected the rise of musicology and the performance goal of attempting to re-​create the music strictly in accordance with the composer’s intentions. These editions were well intentioned, but they seldom documented discrepancies in early sources. Rather, editors resolved discrepancies according to personal convictions and presented their choices as gospel. Still available is the early urtext edition of Karl Krebs (1898). Some early twentieth-​century editors tried to incorporate both approaches, attempting to document the composer’s intentions but also adding indications designed to help the performer in varying degrees. This group includes editions often used by today’s performers, each edition having garnered both admirers and critics. The edition of Alfredo Casella (1920) offers authoritative opinions and substantial interpretive advice, including pedaling. That of Heinrich Schenker (1923) has a sterling reputation among performers, deserved for the most part despite Schenker’s occasional alteration of small details in the sources, such as placement of dynamics and articulation. The edition of Harold Craxton with analytical and interpretive notes by Donald Francis Tovey (1931) refers often to interpretive ideas from earlier editors and, although scholarly in intent, is openly revisionist. Perhaps the most controversial of this group of editions is that of Artur Schnabel (1935). Schnabel’s performances of the sonatas earned him the reputation of being a superb Beethoven interpreter, and his musical ideas about the sonatas are incorporated into his edition. Beethoven’s text is set in large type and Schnabel’s in small. Copious footnotes further elucidate Schnabel’s ideas. Moreover, metronome markings in the text suggest tempo fluctuations, often within a single movement. Despite Schnabel’s reputation as a Beethoven performer, musicians do not agree on the merit of his edition, some regarding it highly and others finding it cluttered to the point of obscuring the original text. In addition, some musicians do not agree with the metronome markings, in particular, the changes within movements.

 

8

Considerations

Toward the middle of the twentieth century, so-​called critical editions began to appear. They elucidate discrepancies or possible errors in early sources, thus permitting the performer to make decisions as to authenticity. Even so, editors do not always agree as to which of the early versions is preferable. These editions usually limit performance assistance to fingering, sometimes provided by a second editor, and ornament realization, although editors often differ as to which realization is best. Prominent are critical editions of Carl Adolf Martienssen (1948), B[erte] A[ntonie] Wallner (1952, revised in 1980), Claudio Arrau (1978), Kendall Taylor (1989), Dominique Geoffrey (through the op. 28 only, 1992), Peter Hauschild (2001), Barry Cooper (2008), and Stewart Gordon (2010).

Written Sources Possibly the most revealing written source is the body of letters the composer wrote. His letters range from those of a highly personal nature, such as the famous love letter to the Immortal Beloved and the so-​called Heilegenstadt Testament, to business and social letters, as well as short notes dealing with mundane daily activities. Many collections of selected letters have appeared. Emily Anderson (1891–​1962) undertook collecting and translating the complete letters (1961), and her work is referenced in much subsequent writing about the composer. More recent research uncovered almost one hundred letters not included in Anderson and questioned the accuracy of some of her translation. Recent publications that supplement and correct Anderson’s work have been prepared by Sieghard Brandenburg (1996) and Theodore Albrecht (1996). Carl Czerny (1791–​1857), who studied with Beethoven as a boy and remained a friend and admirer, left us glimpses of the composer in his memoirs (1842). Czerny also offered performance advice for piano works in the fourth part of his Complete Theoretical and Practical Piano Forte School, op.  500. This information has been assembled and edited by Paul Badura-​Skoda (1970). Other descriptions exist by those who knew or observed the composer. In his day Beethoven was both famous and controversial. Early in his career, he was brash and talented enough to have inspired commentary from both friends and critics. Among these were lifelong friends Franz Gerhard Wegeler (1765​–​1848) and Ferdinand Ries, who collaborated to produce the first volume devoted to the composer (1838), a work based on the personal recollections of the two men almost a decade after the composer’s death but considered reasonably reliable. In later years Beethoven was well-​known enough to be regarded as a celebrity whom many musicians visited when travelling nearby. There are many short descriptions of these visits. Among those who wrote such vignettes are Friedrich Wieck, Clara Schumann’s father, who visited around 1826; Louis Schlösser, court conductor at Darmstadt, who visited in 1822; composer Carl Friedrich Zelter, who

 

Source s

9

wrote to Goethe of a visit around 1819; and Cipriani Porter, a London musician who had lessons with Beethoven in 1818. Anton Schindler (1795–​1864), a Moravian violinist, became Beethoven’s personal helper around 1822, providing needed assistance to the near-​deaf composer. Although their relationship was sometimes turbulent, Schindler represented himself as a champion of the composer’s legacy. In 1840 Schindler wrote a biography of Beethoven, expanding and revising it in 1860. Almost immediately, close friends of the composer regarded Schindler’s work as erroneous. Moreover, later research (1977) revealed not only that Schindler was inaccurate but also that he had destroyed and altered many of Beethoven’s conversation books, thereby calling into question all of his reporting unless verified by other sources. The earliest major Beethoven research was begun in the 1850s by Alexander Wheelock Thayer (1817–​1897), who graduated from Harvard University in law and gained research skill as an assistant librarian there. Thayer, an ardent music lover, was disturbed by the inaccuracies of Schindler’s work and the light-​weight reminiscences of the Wegeler/​Ries collaboration. Determined to produce a significant scholarly work about Beethoven, Thayer invested his own money and many years of his life in researching and producing a new biography. Although he wrote in English, he wanted the work to be published in German, a language he considered more scholarly. He entrusted translation to a musicologist friend, Hermann Deiters (1833–1907). The first three volumes, covering Beethoven’s life up to 1816, were published in German in 1866, 1872, and 1879. Volumes four and five appeared in 1907–8, having been finished by musicologist Hugo Riemann (1849–​1919) after Deiters’ death. The complete work in English finally appeared in 1921, having been compiled by Henry Edward Krehbiel (1854–​1923) from Thayer’s manuscript and notes, as well as the German edition. Although many biographies and studies of Beethoven have appeared since, Thayer’s work is still considered a definitive research source. It was revised and edited by Elliot Forbes in 1967. Later explorations include analysis of his musical style and creative process, as well as the processes through which his image in Western culture has evolved. Throughout the decades, Beethoven has continued to be regarded as powerfully creative, innovative, and enigmatic, a figure who invites interpretation, speculation, and reconstruction. The bibliography at the end of this book could not possibly begin to list the written works about Beethoven. It does, however, offer a listing of selected biographies, sources, and studies of the piano sonatas, as well as frequently encountered editions of them.

 

 

2

Beethoven and the Piano

Development of the Piano Beethoven wrote most of his piano music decades before today’s piano reached its current form. During the composer’s life the physical characteristics of the piano were not standardized. Piano makers were constantly changing the instrument, often trying out various ideas, many of which were later abandoned. Moreover, they often built customized models for royalty or those of celebrity status. Beethoven had instruments from several piano makers in his home at various points in his life. These exhibited to some extent the characteristics evident in the modern piano, yet some changes influenced the composer’s writing immediately. For example, the five-​octave range he had at his disposal early in his career increased by increments. Also, the piano became stronger and more sonorous, and its action more reliable. By the end of the composer’s life, the instrument was on its way to being the one we know today, but aside from the changes he made use of, other important alterations took place after most of the sonatas had been written. A few were even made after the composer’s death in 1827. The dates of the thirty-​two sonatas range from 1796 to 1822. Changes to the piano are dated as follows: 1821—​ Sébastian Érard (1752–​ 1831) patented “double escapement,” the mechanical arrangement that facilitated rapid key repetition and prevented jamming or “blocking.” 1825—​Alpheus Babcock (1785–​1842) designed and cast the first iron frame, making possible the use of steel wire with greater string tension, thereby increasing sonority. Other builders had experimented earlier with heavier cases and metal braces, notably Érard (as early as 1777) and John Broadwood (1732–​1812), whose celebrated “iron piano” appeared about 1820. 1827—​James Stewart (?–​after 1860)  invented the method of stringing used today, that of winding the string around the hitch pin without a loop. His work stabilized tuning.

11

 

Considerations

12

1828—​Jean Henri Pape (1789–​1875) patented the process for cross-​stringing, making possible the use of longer, more powerful bass strings. This work resulted in the “wing” shape of today’s grand piano. 1833—​Babcock took out a patent for felt hammers in the United States. Pape followed in Europe in 1835. Earlier experiments with felt, rather than leather, date from 1780. This list reflects that changes took place wherever piano builders were working, often in widely separated geographical locations. Communication between builders tended to be slow and sporadic, so changes in one country, when deemed efficacious, were adopted gradually in other areas. Also, a given set of characteristics was often common in a specific region. The best-​documented of these differences are those that attended pianos made in Germany or Austria and those made in England. Two of the better-​known descriptions of the differences between these two schools of piano builders were written by Johann Nepomuk Hummel (1778–​1837) and Friedrich Kalkbrenner (1785–​1849) in method books published respectively in 1829 and 1831. Both described the German-​Austrian pianos as having a “light” action and a “clear” sound, permitting rapid execution and subtle nuance. Both wrote that the English piano had a “heavier” action and a “full” sound, permitting a “larger” style and a more “singing” tone. The English piano action was deemed “deeper” and “slower” to respond. These subjective descriptions are supported by typical specifications: German-​Austrian Pianos

English Pianos

Two strings per note

Three strings per note, 50% more diameter

Flat, thinner sounding boards

Convex, thicker sounding boards

Lighter, thinner hammers

Heavier, thicker hammers

Heavier, more reliable dampers

Lighter dampers

Knee pedals

Foot pedals

Pianos Beethoven Knew or Used It is not possible to determine whether Beethoven owned some of the pianos he used, for piano builders often lent pianos to famous musicians in order to obtain endorsements. Similarly, we don’t know the extent to which Beethoven played many of the pianos associated with his name or, in some cases, his reaction to the instruments. The following paragraphs offer information about the piano builders documented as having played a role in Beethoven’s creative life.

 

B eethoven and the Piano

13

Stein (Streicher) Andreas Stein’s (1728–​1792) workshop was in Augsburg, Germany. After Stein’s death, the business was taken over by his son Mattäus and daughter Nanette. In 1794 Nanette married Andreas Streicher (1761–​1833), who had worked in the shop in Augsburg. All three moved to Vienna, where they built Stein pianos. Mattäus started his own business in 1802, and the Streichers built Stein pianos until about 1810, when they changed the name of their pianos to Streicher. Stein/​Streicher pianos represented the German-​Austrian tradition. Beethoven befriended the Streichers in the early 1800s. Nanette often advised the composer on managing his household. Thus, many letters from Beethoven to Nanette deal with mundane household matters. Even so, Beethoven’s knowledge of Stein’s work and his long personal association with the Streichers suggest that the Stein/​ Streicher was the most significant piano in the composer’s early professional life. In 1787 Beethoven had visited Augsburg and presumably the Stein workshop. Almost a decade later, on November 9, 1796, the composer wrote to Andreas Streicher thanking him for a piano and commenting that the instrument was “too good,” leaving him little opportunity to exhibit his acquired skills of tone production. Some years later, on May 6, 1810, Beethoven told Andreas Streicher in a letter that his piano was worn out and needed to be replaced. In July of the same year, Beethoven wrote to Streicher of his pleasure in visiting the builder’s shop and selecting a piano, probably for purchase by Baron Georg Schall Von Falenhorst (1761–​1831). In November the composer wrote to Streicher again, complaining that he still had not received another piano (presumably to replace the one mentioned in the letter of May 6). On July 7, 1817, Beethoven wrote to Nanette Streicher, “Now I have a great favor to ask of Streicher. Request him on my behalf to be so kind as to adjust one of your pianos for me to suit my impaired hearing. It should be as loud as possible. That is absolutely necessary. I have long been intending to buy one of your pianos, but at the moment that would be very difficult for me. Perhaps, however, it will be possible for me to do so later on. But until then I should like to borrow one of yours. Of course I don’t want to do so without paying for it. I am prepared to pay you in advance what you usually receive for one, i.e. for six months in assimilated coinage. Perhaps you are not aware that, although I have not always used one of your pianos, since 1809 I have always had a special preference for them. Only Streicher would be able to send me the kind of piano I require.”1 Most Viennese pianos that served Beethoven during the period when he wrote the early sonatas had five octaves, from F to f ′′′. Up to the op. 53 there is but one example wherein the composer exceeded this range (op. 14, no. 1, 1, measure 41, where octaves in the right hand go up to F♯′′′). Information concerning the ranges of   AND II:686.

1

 

Considerations

14

Beethoven’s pianos is far from complete. As noted earlier, the piano was undergoing constant change, and piano builders often customized instruments. Even so, the composer had to deal with the five-​octave keyboard range in many of the sonatas, particularly in earlier works. When he ran out of notes, he either had to reposition the existing line, jumping back into the five-​octave compass, or rewrite the passage, inventing alternate patterns that did not exceed that compass. These adjustments are often noted in the chapters dealing with each sonata. However, the following partial list gives an idea of how frequently the composer was forced to deal with the range limits of his keyboard, as well as how he solved each case. Beethoven often used the outer limits of the keyboard he had at his disposal. Thus one senses that he was well aware that sonorities at extreme ranges elicited an emotional response. Opus

Movement Measures (to compare)

Beethoven’s solution

7

4

42, 44, 46 with 135, 137, 139 (138, 140, 142)

Adjust earlier passage

10, no. 1

1

128 no upper note on octave

None (many editors add)

2

28–​30 with 75–​77

Adjust later passage

1

15, 22, 271, 272 no upper or lower notes on octaves

None (many editors add)

104 with 285

Adjust earlier passage

10, no. 3

13

1

108–​109–110 with 260–​62 (262–​6 4)

Adjust later passage

14, no. 1

1

41 contains an octave passage that moves to an octave the upper note of which is f♯′′′. The note did not exist on most pianos of the day. This is the only instance in the piano sonatas before the op. 53 in which Beethoven exceeds the usual keyboard range.

Many editors add

152–​54 (153–​155) no lower note on downbeat octaves 14, no. 2

1

4 with 102

Adjust later passage

43 with 170

Adjust earlier passage

 

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15

27, no. 2

3

35 with 130 (131)

Adjust earlier passage

31, no. 2

1

59–​62 with 189–​92 (193–​96)

Adjust later passage

Editors and performers have reacted to these solutions in different ways. Some believe that the composer’s adjustments to the range of his keyboard were an integral part of his creative process and should not be altered. This argument was first put forward by Carl Czerny and Anton Schindler, both of whom studied with Beethoven. The composer himself wrote that only he was qualified to transcribe his piano sonatas for other instruments, a point of view some extend to include alterations such as these.2 Those who advocate alteration assume Beethoven would have written the music with the changes they make had the compass of the keyboard been larger. Such an assumption may be challenged by pointing out that changing details in repeated material may not have been entirely due to range limitations, for the composer frequently made such small alterations. Other advocates for alteration contend that making such changes for today’s extended keyboard is logical and serves the composer’s aesthetics, emphasizing that his existing keyboard writing is both visionary and often orchestral in concept. Contemporary critical editions tend to be conservative in this regard, often noting keyboard limitations but not recommending changes. Nineteenth-​century editors tended to be more liberal, sometimes going so far as to make changes without comment. Moreover, editors exhibit different degrees of flexibility in different cases. For example, in the first movement of the op. 10, no. 3, many editors and performers feel comfortable making octaves of the single notes on the downbeats of measures 15 and 22, for the likelihood is strong that the composer would have continued in octaves were the notes on the keyboard available. However, even those who would create these octaves are less confident about changing measure 104 in the exposition to match measure 285 in the recapitulation, for in this case, more extensive rewriting is involved.

Other Pianos The names of several other Viennese piano makers are associated with Beethoven’s early career to a lesser extent. Carl Czerny reported that when he auditioned for Beethoven in 1801 as a boy of ten, the composer had a Walter piano in his   AND I:74–​75.

2

 

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home, Czerny describing it as “the best one made then.”3 Anton [Gabriel] Walter (1752–​1826) produced pianos in what were considered large numbers at that time, claiming in about 1790 that he had already produced 350 pianos, some of which he exported. Another reference to a Walter piano is in a letter Beethoven wrote to Nikolaus Zmeskall von Domanovecz (1759–​1833), an official in the Hungarian Chancellery, who was an amateur musician and a close personal friend for many years. The letter (dated November 1802 by Zmeskall) shows the composer’s ambivalent feelings about Walter’s pianos, as well as his intense interest in the details of the piano building. Well, my dear Zmeskall, you may give Walter, if you like, a strong dose of my affair. For, in the first place, he deserves it in any case; and, what is more, since the time when people began to think that relations with Walter were strained, the whole tribe of pianoforte manufacturers have been swarming around me in their anxiety to serve me—​and all for nothing. Each of them wants to make me a pianoforte exactly as I should like it… . So you may give Walter to understand that, although I can have pianofortes for nothing from all the others, I will pay him 30 ducats, but not more than 30 ducats, and on condition that the wood is mahogany. Furthermore, I insist that it shall have the tension with one string—​If he won’t agree to these conditions, then make it quite plain to him that I  shall choose one of the others to whom I will give my order.4 In the closing lines of the letter, Beethoven made reference to another Viennese piano maker, for he thought he would be expected to play on a piano made by Matthias Jakesch (1783–​c.1828) at a social event. One suspects sarcasm in the comment “[I]‌shall then have the pleasure of seeing myself compelled to display my art on Jakesch’s piano.”5 Beethoven recommended two Viennese piano makers to the Leipzig publisher Breitkopf & Härtel in a short note dated November 23, 1803, apparently responding to an inquiry. The composer, probably referring to Viennese piano maker Johann Bohak (1755–​1805), deemed Herr Pohack’s work “sound” and Herr Moser’s “reliable,” with the hope that “in time he will make instruments equal, or even superior to those of the leading manufacturers.”6 Beethoven’s correspondence also mentioned Schanz pianos, instruments made by brothers Wenzel (d.1790) and Johann (1762–​1828), as having been prominent in Vienna. In the spring of 1810 the composer mentioned the Schanz piano in a   CZY, 4.   AND I:82. Emphasis added. 5   AND I: 82-​3. 6   AND I:101. 3 4

 

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short letter to Baron Ignaz von Gleichenstein (1778–​1828), a close friend during this period. Apparently, Frau M[alfatti], the mother of sisters Therese and Anna, had asked Beethoven for help in choosing a piano, and she had decided it was to be a Schanz. Beethoven referred to his habit of refusing commissions for recommending pianos but stated that he might accept one in this case. A Schanz piano is also mentioned in Beethoven’s letter of March 15, 1815, to Joseph von Varena (1769–​1843), an admirer who lived in Graz and had solicited unpublished scores by the composer for charity concerts in that city. In selecting a piano for Varena, Beethoven stated that the chosen Schanz had six octaves and named its price, comparing its cost to a piano made by Seiffert. The sale was apparently consummated, for on July 23, the composer wrote to Varena that he should receive his Schanz piano in twelve days, stating at the end of the note, “I too possess one of his.”7 Two pianos are reported to have been in Beethoven’s possession by Theodor von Frimmel (1853–​1928), an Austrian physician who devoted a substantial portion of his life to Beethoven research and whose documents are presently at the Beethoven-​Haus in Bonn. Frimmel stated that an instrument made by S. A. Vogel of Pest, Hungary, was acquired by Beethoven in 1814 and sold the same year to a piano maker by the name of Feiler. He also reported that a young student named Hirsch tentatively remembered a Kirschbaum piano in Beethoven’s home in 1817; this piano bore a name that, if remembered correctly, seems to have dropped into oblivion.

Érard In 1803 Beethoven received a piano as a gift from the French piano maker Sébastian Érard (1752–​1831). The Érard brothers, Sébastian and Jean-​Baptiste (d.1826), made small five-​octave pianos until the late 1790s. Then they began to build larger pianos influenced by English models. The firm’s records show that on the eighteenth of Thermidor in Year XI of the Republic (August 6, 1803), the gift of a piano was made to Beethoven. It is not certain when the Érard actually arrived, but it is possible that its extended range influenced the range of sketches for the op. 53, which date from November and December 1803. The piano had a mahogany case that was braced by four small pieces of iron. It sat on three legs, its stringing was tri-​chord, and its action was the heavier one associated with English pianos. The keyboard’s compass was five and one-​half octaves, from F to c′′′. Two of the four foot pedals were counterparts of today’s damper and una corda pedals; the other two were for special effects: the “lute” pedal inserted leather thongs between the hammers and the strings, and the “dampening” pedal inserted a piece of cloth.   AND II:523.

7

 

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The composer’s outburst of despair about his hearing loss had surfaced the preceding year with his writing of the document known as the Heiligenstadt Testament. Despite this psychological crisis, Beethoven’s activities as a pianist and conductor during this period suggest that his hearing was but slightly impaired. Thus, the composer could with certainty incorporate the Érard piano into his professional life. Evidence suggests that, unfortunately, Beethoven did not like the Érard very much. In a letter to Andreas Streicher in November 1810, Beethoven undoubtedly referred to his Érard when he wrote: “As for my French piano, which is certainly quite useless now, I still have misgivings about selling it, for it is really a souvenir such as no one here has so far honored me with.”8 In 1825 or 1826, Beethoven gave the Érard to his brother [Nikolaus] Johann van Beethoven (1776–​1848), probably to make room for a new Graf piano. The Érard, the earliest of the extant instruments owned by the composer, is on display at the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna. The range Beethoven used in his piano sonatas began to exceed five octaves at about this time, possibly as a result of the extra half-​octave on the Érard in his home or of encountering instruments with extended keyboards elsewhere. Consider the following observations: Opus

Movement

Measure(s)

Upper Range

53

1

73, 261, 275–​76 (263) (277–​78)

3

31 etc., 55 etc. 230, 386

57

1

14, 60, 61 etc. 87, 231

2

71, 77–​79 (76, 82–​84)

3

341–​53 (351–​63)

f♯′′′, g′′′, g♯′′′, a′′′ g′′′s in main theme a♭′′′s at climaxes b♭′′′, c♭′′′, a♭′′′

c′′′′ (highest key on the Érard keyboard) a♭′′′s and b♭′′′s at climaxes g′′′s, a♭′′′s, and c′′′′s

Broadwood Beethoven’s Broadwood piano was a gift sent to him by the London piano maker on December 27, 1817. The firm of Broadwood & Sons was originally established in the early decades of the eighteenth century by Swiss harpsichord maker Burkat Schudi (1702–​1773). John Broadwood (1732–​1812) joined the firm in 1761,

  AND I:300.

8

 

B eethoven and the Piano

19

married Shudi’s daughter Barbara and became a partner in the firm. Upon the elder Shudi’s death, his son, also named Burkat (1738–​1803), took over his father’s share of the partnership. The entire business became Broadwood’s upon the death of Burkat the younger. The firm’s harpsichord clients included Frederick the Great, Maria Theresa, and Haydn. Broadwood started making square fortepianos in the 1770s and grand pianos in the early 1780s. It has been estimated that by the 1790s he was producing one thousand grands and four hundred squares per year. He concentrated on increasing the sound of the instruments by equalizing string tension and determining optimal striking points. Metal braces to reinforce the piano’s frame against string tension were introduced in stages, just about the time Beethoven’s piano was made. John Broadwood’s two sons James (1772–​1851) and Thomas (1786–​1861) became active in the business, James in 1795 and Thomas in 1807. Thomas made an extended journey through Switzerland and Austria in August 1817, and his chronicles state that he met Beethoven. Consequently, when Thomas returned to London, he appointed a selection committee to choose a piano to send to the composer as a gift. The committee was composed of distinguished musicians of the time:  pianist-​composers Johann Baptist Cramer (1771–​1858) and Friedrich Kalkbrenner (1785–1849), organist-​composer Charles Knyvett (1773–​1852), Giacomo Gotifredo Ferrari (1763–​1842), a singer and theorist who was a personal friend of Thomas Broadwood, and Fredinand Ries, Beethoven’s Bonn friend, student, and biographer. Beethoven’s piano had to be transported through the Mediterranean to the port of Trieste and then by cart almost two hundred miles. The newspaper Wiener Zeitung marked the event with a notice stating that the Imperial and Royal Chamber had “waived the customs duty which would otherwise have been levied on any foreign instrument.”9 Although the piano did not reach Beethoven until July 1818, the composer learned of the gift earlier and wrote a letter of appreciation to Thomas Broadwood (in French) dated February 15, 1818. In it he thanked Broadwood profusely for the piano and indicated that it would inspire him to write something especially for it. The instrument itself was considered state-​of-​the-​art. It had a mahogany case reinforced with metal strips, copper strings, triple stringing, two foot pedals, and a range of six octaves (C to c′). The damper pedal was split, so that its effect could be applied to upper and lower strings separately. Two metal dedication plates commemorated the instrument, one with Beethoven’s name and below it one with the names of the members of the selection committee. Because the op.  106 (“Hammerklavier”) sonata was the next piano sonata to be published ( July 1822), it is often believed that the work was written for the Broadwood. Actually, the work had been started in late 1817, with the first two movements completed by April 1818. Similarly, the fact that the nickname   Reported by Eszter Fontana Gát in the liner notes to Hungaroton CD 11885, dedicated to music played on Beethoven’s Broadwood. 9

 

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“Hammerklavier” has been applied to the op. 106 led to speculation that the powerful spirit of the work reflected the heavier action of the Broadwood. The term Hammerklavier, however, was something altogether different in the composer’s mind, for he regarded this term as the German equivalent of fortepiano. This is shown in a letter dated January 23, 1817, to Sigmund Anton Steiner (1773–​1838), the publisher of several of Beethoven’s works from 1815 and the owner of a music shop that was an occasional gathering place for the composer and other musicians. Beethoven ordered that “on all our works, on which the title is German, instead of pianoforte Hammerklavier shall be used.”10 Steiner’s publication of the op. 101 the following month, therefore, shows both the French “pour le Piano-​Forte” and German “für Das Hammerklavier.” Although the first edition of the op. 106 was published by Artaria, not Steiner, the composer’s wishes were followed in its publication as well, for there were two title pages, one in French and one in German. An assessment of the degree of deafness Beethoven suffered when the Broad­ wood arrived also bears on the extent to which the piano may have been a working instrument. Accounts of how well the composer could hear from this point onward in his life vary considerably. Czerny is reported to have stated that the composer’s deafness had become so extreme by 1818 that he could no longer hear music. Beethoven began to use an ear trumpet in 1816, and conversation books appeared in 1818.11 On the other hand, reports of periods when the composer could hear fairly well date from much later. Joseph Reinhold Schultz (misidentified as Edward) visited the composer on September 28, 1823, with mutual friends Tobias Haslinger (1787–​1842) and Joseph Blahetka (1782–​1857). Schultz’s account of the visit stated that “nothing can possibly be more lively, more animated, and … more energetic than [Beethoven’s] conversation, when you have succeeded in getting him into good humor.” At lunch Schultz noted that “hears badly, but speaks remarkably well.”12 [ Johann Gottlieb] Friedrich Wieck wrote an account of a visit with Beethoven arranged by Andreas Stein, the Viennese piano maker. Wieck credits Stein with having “devoted much attention to improving deafness and to ear-​trumpets.”13 Wieck wrote his account from memory at a later date and placed it in 1826. (Thayer believes it to have been in 1824.) After conversing with the composer, Wieck wrote, “[T]‌hen he improvised for me during an hour, after he had mounted   AND II:654.   A. W. Thayer, Thayer’s Life of Beethoven, ed. Elliot Forbes. 2 vols. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967), 690. 12   Reported in O. G. Sonneck, Beethoven: Impressions by His Contemporaries (New York: Dover, 1967), 151–​52. 13   Quoted in ibid., 207–​8. 10 11

 

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his ear-​trumpet, and placed it on the resonance plate on which already stood the pretty well battered, large grand piano, with its very powerful, rough tone, which had been presented to him by the city of London.”14 Wieck was undoubtedly referring to the Broadwood. Sir George Smart (1776–​1867), an English music publisher, spent two or three days visiting Beethoven in 1825. In an account dated September 16, he wrote that in one of the composer’s four large-​sized rooms “is the grand pianoforte, much out of tune, given him by Broadwood… . Beethoven gave me the time by playing the subjects on the pianoforte, of many movements of his symphonies.”15 Smart’s noting that the Broadwood was out of tune suggests the piano may have been neglected. Further evidence of deterioration is provided by Johan Andreas Stumpf (1769–​1846), a London harp maker who visited Beethoven in 1818 to tune the Broadwood and again in 1824. After his later visit Stumpf reported on the Broadwood: “As I opened it, what a spectacle offered itself to my view! There was no sound left in the treble and broken strings were mixed up like a thorn bush in a gale.”16 After Beethoven’s death the Broadwood was sold at auction along with other household items. It was subsequently acquired by Anton Diabelli & Co. Diabelli (1781–​1858), whose name is associated with Beethoven’s famous set of variations op. 120, had expanded his music publishing business to include art objects with the help of his lawyer Anton Spina (1790–​1857). In 1851 the business was taken over by Spina’s son, Carl Anton (1827–​1906), and operated as C. A. Spina. The Broadwood piano is reported to have been given to Liszt in 1845 by C. A. Spina. Liszt in his 1873 will bequeathed it to the Hungarian National Museum, where it is today.

Graf In 1825 Conrad Graf (1782–​1851) constructed a special piano for Beethoven. The German-​born piano maker had moved to Vienna in 1799, and the quality of his instruments had garnered him the title of Royal Court Piano and Keyboard Instrument Maker by 1824. Beethoven probably received the Graf piano in early1826. Gerhard von Breuning (1813–​1892), who visited the composer as a boy, later reported seeing the Graf in the composer’s home in the summer of 1826. The piano’s serial number suggests that it cannot have arrived before January 31, 1826, and possibly not until 1827 (in which case Beuning would have been in error).17 The piano itself was 121.2 centimeters wide and 242.8 centimeters long with a range of six octaves. It had a mahogany veneer over a frame made of spruce and oak.   Quoted in ibid., 195.   Gát, liner notes to Hungaroton CD 11885. 16   Ibid. 17   Deborah Wythe, “The Pianos of Conrad Graf,” Early Music 12, no. 4 (November 1884), 457. 14 15

 

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It was triple-​and quadruple-​strung in order to produce a sound that, it was hoped, could penetrate the composer’s deafness. C′ to E′ were triple-​strung with wrapped wires of copper and steel; F to C♯ were triple-​strung with brass wires, and D to f ′′′ were of quadruple-​strung steel. There were three pedals of brass and steel. The right one controlled damping and was similar to modern damper pedals. The left one shifted the keyboard, as in today’s pianos, providing una corda. (Graf pianos also had due corda available.) The middle pedal was for a special effect known as Piano Harfe, and its rail was fitted with fabric tabs that were inserted between the hammers and the strings, single layers for piano and double layers for pianissimo. The action of the piano was of the Viennese type, for Graf had eschewed experimenting with the heavier English action.18 The hammers were bullet-​shaped and had three to five layers of leather. Beethoven’s Graf piano is now on display at the Beethoven-​ Haus in Bonn.

  Ibid., 456.

18

 

3

Performance Practices

Many keyboard performance practices were changing during Beethoven’s lifetime. These changes were driven in part by the philosophical and aesthetic shift from classical ideals toward romanticism and in part by physical changes in the piano. It was starting to become the instrument we know today, and as it evolved, composers began to regard the piano as a surrogate orchestra, exploring its expanded compass, dynamic prowess, and sonic capabilities. This, in turn, impacted both performance practices and aesthetic conceptions. These changes make it difficult to arrive at definitive choices when we encounter alternatives in attempting to re-​create music of the period. Some composers favored the old ways; others were adopting the new, changing with the times, often during the course of their careers. Writings from the period often recommend different performance procedures. Thus when choices must be made, even the most research-​oriented performers often do not agree as to which realization represents a given composer’s wishes most accurately. This fluid situation should not, however, invite a cavalier attitude in reaching challenging decisions. Rather, studying the historical and musical contexts with which to forge a personal conviction leads to both informed decisions and involved performances.

Ornamentation One of the functions of ornamentation was to enhance weak sonority. As the piano found its voice, ornamentation was called upon less frequently for this purpose, so it was increasingly regarded as an expressive extension of the musical line, often equated it with singers’ vocal displays. As the role of ornamentation changed, execution changed. Composers used stock symbols less often, preferring to write out the ornamentation, sometimes with inventive twists that could not be indicated by the established symbols. When symbols were used, realization of them underwent change as well. Thus at the time Beethoven was writing his piano sonatas, ornamentation was moving from the tradition that had served late Baroque and Classical composers to one that came to be associated with the middle and late nineteenth century.

23

 

24

Considerations

The decisions that must be made when confronted by differences between the older models and those that evolved in the nineteenth century may be summarized as follows: • where to start trills, on the upper or the main note • how to end trills, whether or not to use after-​notes (nachschlag) • where to start turns, on the upper or the main note, and often where to place them in terms of rhythm • whether mordents start on upper or main notes, and on the beat or before the beat • whether to play single grace notes and groups of grace notes on or before beats • whether to execute arpeggios on or before beats When Carl Czerny started to study with Beethoven at the age of ten, the composer asked him to acquire Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach’s Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments, an influential work that had been published four times between 1753 and 1797. The work covered a number of topics. Although it focused heavily on figured bass and improvisation, one important section was devoted to the realization of various ornament symbols. Czerny’s report implies that Beethoven had knowledge of and respect for the earlier performance practices that C. P. E. Bach’s treatise addressed. Even so, it is impossible to know the extent to which Beethoven subscribed to the ornamentation section of the treatise as a guide for playing ornaments in his own works. It is possible, for example, that Beethoven wanted to use the Bach treatise merely as a guide to teach improvisation, or to study Bach’s thoughts on what constituted refined musical taste, but did not emphasize the section on ornamentation. This speculation is underscored by the fact that C. P. E. Bach’s realizations of ornaments were deemed relatively conservative in this time of change. Thus the evidence that Beethoven adhered rigorously to the older performance practice of C.P.E. Bach is fragile at best. Moreover, Beethoven’s temperament was such that he did not hesitate to venture forth into new territory. Indeed, more conservative members of his society considered him brash. So it is reasonable to assume that the composer subscribed to established rules when it suited him but changed or broke rules when doing so served his artistic goals. Furthermore, Beethoven seems not to have been consistent in his notation of ornaments, so trying to extract general principles from examining his autographs does not necessarily result in definitive answers. Forging solutions is further complicated by the editorial choices superimposed on the sonatas throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Some of the realizations have evolved into strong traditions, many incorporating later performance practices, and, whether right or wrong, they exert a powerful influence on what sounds right to today’s listeners. These factors, taken together, form a daunting

 

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challenge for the performer, for in many cases there are no clear solutions to questions of ornamentation. Perhaps realizing ornamentation should be regarded in the same light as etiquette. One knows the rules, but how one applies them depends on circumstances.

Starting Trills Throughout the sonatas the performer must decide where to start a trill, and from the earliest of the sonatas, beginnings on the upper note and the main note appear to be appropriate. For example, in the op. 2, no. 1 (1796), the right-​hand trills in the first movement at measures 85, 86, and 87 lend themselves gracefully to starting on the upper note and incorporating the after-​notes (nachschläge) in a four-​note ornament, thus following the earlier performance practice. It would seem logical to apply similar solutions to the trills in the minuet at measures 30, 31, 32, and 33, as well as to trills in the final movement in measures 10, 11, 149 (151) and 150 (152). In these cases, however, there has been a strong tradition of starting the trill on the main note although such realizations are more difficult. A majority of editors in both the nineteenth and twentieth centuries recommend the later performance practice. Examples from early sonatas that pose similar questions are the trills in the first movement of the op.  2, no.  3, at measure 59 and in the first movement of the op. 10, no. 2, at measures 9, 126 (127), and 141 (142). In later sonatas, the preference for starting on the main note in such situations seems to get stronger. Thus in the op. 31, no. 3, second movement, measures 11, 30, 116 (118), and 135 (137) editorial opinion is virtually unanimous that the trill should start on the main note, as it is regarding the last movement of the same sonata, measures 63 and 238 (240). In some cases the tradition for starting the trill on the main note is strengthened by the context in which the ornament appears. In the first movement of the op. 13 (1799), the climactic dissonance of the right-​handtrills in measures 174 (176), 182 (184), 184 (186), and 186 (188), as well as the fact that the immediately preceding note is the upper accessory, has convinced almost all editors that the trills start on the main note. A similar instance occurs in the second movement of the op. 2, no. 2, at measures 9, 11, and 41. Almost all editors start the trill on the main note, for not only is the immediately preceding note the upper accessory, but also the importance of highlighting the leading tone in the slow-​moving line contributes to the feeling that the main note is preferable. The same tradition attends the trills at measures 23, 25, and 59 of the opening movement of the op. 26, and the same reasoning might be applied. The trills that open the second movement of the op. 31, no. 1, and serve to open subsequent phrases of the main theme also have garnered a tradition of starting on

 

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Example 3.1  Op. 53, final movement, composer’s realization of trills starting in measure 485

the main note, here possibly because of the importance of establishing the harmony on the downbeat of each of the measures. On the other hand, Beethoven’s allegiance to the earlier tradition is supported by a well-​known instance of trill realization he provided. This example is drawn from the final movement of the op. 53, measure 485, where long trills attend statements of the main theme in a coda, as they had throughout the movement. The composer’s autograph presents two suggestions for realizing the trills, one designated as easier for performers who cannot manage the first realization. In both cases, the trill starts with the upper note. The example is puzzling because, inasmuch as the right hand must manage double notes in order to sustain both the trill and the melodic line, starting on the upper note results in intervals of sevenths and seconds at certain points, whereas starting on the main note would result in consonant intervals, octaves and a unison, as well as a more pianistic coordination. (Example 3.1) Editors have been divided as to how to treat this example. Many have dutifully attempted to follow the composer’s realization but allowed for an adjustment so that the interval of a second becomes a unison. Others offer solutions that involve stopping the trill when melodic notes are played (the so-​called false trill). A few admit not understanding Beethoven’s realization, and they either ignore it or adjust the trill so that the interval of a seventh becomes an octave and the second, a unison, citing both musical and technical considerations. William S. Newman has suggested that Beethoven became increasingly out of touch with the physical aspects of playing the piano in his later works, perhaps due to his hearing impairment.1 This speculation seemingly would not apply to the Op. 53, however, for evidence suggests that the composer’s hearing was only slightly impaired in 1803–​4, when the sonata was written (see Chapter 2, pp. 20–​21). Often Beethoven notated trills preceded by an upper-​accessory grace note, as in the closing theme of the exposition of the first movement of the op. 2, no. 3, starting at measure 78. What the composer meant by this notation is not clear. If performance practice dictated normally starting on the upper accessory, then why should   William S. Newman, Beethoven on Beethoven: Playing His Piano Music His Way (New York: Norton, 1988), 216. 1

 

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Example 3.2  Op. 2, no. 3, 1st movement, measure 78, two realizations

Example 3.3 

(a) Op. 57, 1st movement, measure 3

(b) Op. 57, 1st movement, measure 11

it be necessary to indicate it with a grace note? Some editors have assumed it is there to indicate the composer’s wishes at a time when the trill’s starting point was changing. Others have interpreted the indication as a grace note to be played before the downbeat. (Example 3.2) Perhaps the most famous example of this puzzle unfolds in the opening movement of the op. 57, where some of the trills are preceded by a grace note (measures 3, 7, 9, 23, 69, 144, and 146) and others are not (measures 11, 21, 71, 73, 76, 138, 142, 156, 158, 160, and 162). The autograph and the first edition agree in this disposition, so it would seem unlikely that it represents carelessness by both the composer and the engraver. Editorial advice as to realizations varies greatly, and the performer should consider different possibilities before deciding how to play these passages. Measures 3 and 11 (Example 3.3) serve to illustrate some of the choices to be made. In measure 3 the grace note could be played before the beat with the trill starting on the beat, or the grace note could be incorporated into the trill by playing it on the beat. Also, the three sixteenth notes of the measure could be played with precise rhythmic accuracy, in which case they would be slower than the trill, or incorporated into the trill as after-​notes played at the same speed as the trill. In measure 11 there is no grace note before the trill. Most interpreters reflect this absence by starting the trill on the upper accessory, assuming that the omission was deliberate, the composer indicating a different approach to the trill than in earlier measures.

Ending Trills Addressing the question of whether to use after-​notes at the end of the trill is equally problematic. Beethoven often wrote out after-​notes, and they should certainly be incorporated when he indicated them. Open to question, however, is whether to use them when they do not appear in the score.

 

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Considerations

Let us return to the op. 2, no. 1, as an example. The previously cited examples of trills in the first and third movements show after-​notes, but there are no after-​notes shown for any trills in the fourth movement, including those cited above. Many editors feel that this is an oversight and suggest adding them. Indeed, doing so results in a higher degree of consistency. The question remains, however, as to whether the absence of after-​notes in the last movement was intentional, for one could argue that not playing them is easier at the prestissimo tempo. Inconsistencies exist also within a single movement. The fugue of the op. 106 is rife with them, for example, and editors have not agreed on whether to add after-​notes to trills shown without them.

The Extended Trill Extended trills occur throughout the sonatas. The first example is in the final movement of the op. 2, no. 3, where an extended trill appears in measures leading up to a cadenza-​like passage (measures 259–​68) and in the cadenza passage itself (measures 285–​96). This example represents the way Beethoven notated the extended trill throughout the sonatas: almost always in the context of metered rhythm, never abandoning the use of bar lines. In some instances, the trill figure is written out fully, as in the final variation of the first movement of the op. 26 (measures 197–​203), or in part, as in the cadenza-​like passages in the last two movements of the op. 27. no. 1 (measures 25 of the Adagio con espressione and 263, recounting from the beginning of the Allegro vivace). Two examples are of special interest because the trill incorporates tempo adjustments. The first occurs in the final variation of the op. 109, where the pulse remains constant but the trill accelerates gradually in the context of varying the main theme in measures 158–​68 (165–​75). The composer wrote out the notes of the trill until the last adjustment at measure 164 (171), beat three. The second case is in the introduction to the op. 111. Here the trill extends through a tempo change (measures 16–​18). Editors have not agreed as to how to play this passage, opinions ranging from various ways to effect an accelerando to playing the entire introduction fast enough that sixteenth notes and thirty-​second notes become equal. Beethoven indicated the so-​called false trill only once, in the first movement of the op.  26 (measures 179–​85), and even here as a foreshadowing of the full trill that comes a few measures later. Evidence suggests that this technique was well known at the time, for examples are to be found in variation 28 of J. S. Bach’s “Goldberg” Variations (S. 988) as well as in methods by both Czerny and Hummel. Yet Beethoven eschewed its use in the two trill facilitations he notated, those in measures 485–​86 of the final movement of the op.  53 and in measures 112–​13 (120–​21) of the last movement of op. 111. This facilitation is often encountered, however, for it has been recommended by a host of distinguished editors. Moreover, it is enabling for players with small hands.

 

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The most important point to be made is that Beethoven regarded the extended trill as an integral rhythmic part of the music, not a free, unmeasured decoration. Thus performers are responsible for playing extended trills by realizing rhythmic relationships without sounding “square,” a feat that often demands both drill and polish.

Turns The turn appears most frequently in the sonatas as an ornament that links a lower melodic note to a following higher one. The notation of this musical gesture places the turn sign between the earlier lower and the later upper note. In these instances both period practice and editorial tradition support starting on the upper accessory, rather than repeating the lower melodic note. In movements of slow or moderate tempo, rhythmic placement is open to interpretation, and varying rhythms often result, the overall tempo and mood of the movement being taken into account. (Example 3.4) In faster movements, the tempo usually leaves little room for rhythmic variation. (Example 3.5) Example 3.4  Op. 78, 1st movement, measure 3, text and one realization

Example 3.5  Op. 2, no. 3, 1st movement, measure 27, text and one realization

 

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Example 3.6  Op. 101, 3rd movement, measure 1

Example 3.7 

(a) Op. 2, no. 1, 2nd movement, measure 1

(b) Op. 2, no. 1, 2nd movement, measure 7

Note that the use of a turn symbol to indicate this musical gesture became less frequent over the span of the sonatas. Early sonatas contain many of them. The second movement of the op. 2, no. 1, for example, shows fifteen. There are none in the final four sonatas, last appearances of this symbol occurring in the first movement of the op. 101 (measures 13 and 65). In the same work, one can see the composer’s preference for writing out the gesture in detail, rather than using the less precise symbol. (Example 3.6) Turn symbols of this type also appear over the note itself rather than between notes. There is less agreement as to realization in these cases, and the context in which the symbol occurs is often influential. For example, observe the difference in notation between the two examples that occur in the second movement of the op. 2, no. 1. (Example 3.7) Some editors respond to this difference in notation by starting the turn in the first measure on the upper accessory (b♭′) and in the seventh measure on the main note (a′). When the turn symbol is over a note that is a lower neighbor of its predecessor, the practice of starting the turn on the main note is well established, especially when there is not much time in which to execute the ornament. (Example 3.8) Earlier performance practice favored playing turns on the beat, rather than before the beat. Despite this preference, there is a strong tradition of playing the turn as three grace notes before the beat. It appeared as early as 1839 in Czerny’s

 

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Example 3.8  Op. 2, no. 2, 2nd movement, measure 22

Example 3.9 

(a) Rondo op. 51, no. 1, upbeats and measure 1, original text

(b) Rondo op. 51, no. 1, upbeats and measure 1, Czerny’s realization

Example 3.10  Op. 2, no. 1, 2nd movement, measure 28, in the realization often used

Example 3.11  Op. 79, 1st movement, measure 128 (129)

op. 500, where he realizes the turn in the first measures of Beethoven’s 1796–​97 Rondo op. 51, no. 1. (Example 3.9) A similar realization seems practical from a pianistic standpoint in many places in the sonatas; editors usually recommend this realization. (Example 3.10) It could be argued, however, that Beethoven used precise notation when he wanted to depart from the accepted realization. (Example 3.11)

 

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Example 3.12  C. P. E. Bach’s realization of the “trilled turn”

Example 3.13  Op. 78, 1st movement, measure 17, text and two realizations

It is curious that a few editors have ignored Beethoven’s notation in this case, directing that the grace notes be played on the beat in accordance with the earlier practice. In these cases the performer must decide between strict adherence to rules and ease of execution, perhaps justifying the latter by recalling that ornament realizations were changing at the time the music was written. Beethoven used a combination of the symbols for the turn and the mordent in the first movements of the op. 54, measures 18, 20, 24, and 113, and the op. 78, measures 17 and 76 (78). Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach designated this ornament a “trilled turn” and provided an example of its realization in the ornaments section of his Essay on the True Art of Keyboard Playing. (Example 3.12) In the op. 54, the use of this ornament is unusually confusing because Beethoven indicated short trill signs in measures 16 and 85, points that are musically similar to those where the trilled turn symbols were indicated. This seeming inconsistency has led many editors to eschew applying C. P. E. Bach’s complex realization, substituting a variety of easier, more conventional solutions. In the opening movement of the op. 78, the rapid tempo tends to obscure the rhythmic complexity of Bach’s realization, so most editors settle for a simple turn starting on the main note, although there is considerable difference of opinion with regard to the exact rhythm recommended. (Example 3.13)

Mordents Beethoven uses the mordent symbol almost exclusively in the context of rapid passages in which the line moves downward step-​w ise. This figure appears

 

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Example 3.14  Op. 13, 1st movement, measures 57–​58

Example 3.15  Op. 31, no. 2, 3rd movement, measures 43–​44

throughout the sonatas. One of the most famous examples occurs in the opening movement of the op.  13, where the mordent is an integral part of the second theme. (Example 3.14) The mordent in this context carried several designations:  Pralltriller, Schneller, and the “English” mordent. Editorial comment on this ornament has often focused on not permitting the realization to be played as a melodic triplet, but rather keeping it cohesive and ornamental in character. When editors realize the ornament, they often do so with a variety of notation patterns that attempt to show this cohesion. Placing a strong accent on the first note will usually produce the desired effect. Realizations by almost all editors show this ornament starting on the beat. Czerny, however, placed it before the beat in a later example, and his realization has convinced a few editors to insist that all such ornaments be played after the Czerny model. (Example 3.15)

Grace Notes Performers must make two decisions with regard to grace notes in the sonatas: whether to play grace notes and arpeggios on or before the main beat; then, if on the beat, whether to play them quickly or to incorporate them into the beat as longer notes according to the earlier performance practice. These longer notes usually take either half or two-​thirds of the value of the main note, depending on the underlying rhythmic pattern and to some extent the temp. As noted in other matters of ornamentation, performance practice was changing during Beethoven’s time, and editors do not agree in many instances.

 

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Considerations

Example 3.16  Op. 57, 1st movement, measure 3

Example 3.17 

(a) Op. 7, 4th movement, measures 166–​67 (169–​70)

(b) Op. 10, no. 2, 3rd movement, measures 33–​35

A well-​known example referred to earlier points to the first decision. Its notation occurs throughout the opening theme of the op. 57. Most editors recommend that the grace note be played on the beat as part of the trill figure, but some recommend playing it before the beat. (Example 3.16) In faster tempi, each grace note is often marked with a slash through the stem, suggesting that it be played as an acciacatura, or crushed note. In these cases the ear may find it difficult to distinguish between playing grace notes on the beat or before it, and often playing before the beat is more pianistic. (Example 3.17) The grace notes in the 3rd movement of the op.  2, no.  1, appear in the context of the same figure written out. The grace note carries no slash across its stem, so some editors believe it should be construed as two eighth notes. Others point to the composer’s notation of two eighth notes for the same figure and believe that the composer’s indication suggests a different execution for the grace note. (Example 3.18) On the other hand, in the op. 10, no. 3, there is a strong tradition of playing the grace notes starting at measure 53, as well as throughout the second theme of

 

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Example 3.18  Op. 2, no. 1, 3rd movement, measures 21–​23

Example 3.19  Op. 10, no. 3, 1st movement, measures 53–​54

Example 3.20 

(a) Op. 81a, 2nd movement, measure 6

(b) Op. 13, 3rd movement, measures 5–​6

the first movement, on the beat, resulting in four eighth notes. One might believe this tradition developed because the descending eighth-​note figure is related to the opening of the movement, where the four notes are written as equal quarter notes. Even so, realization of the grace note in a descending pattern of this configuration as one of four equal notes is well established in classical piano music and is often applied to earlier music by other composers. (Example 3.19) Editors are equally divided as to whether to play notes on or before the beat when more than one grace note is involved. (Example 3.20)

 

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Example 3.21  Op. 10, no. 2, 1st movement, measure 10

Example 3.22  Op. 81a, 2nd movement, measure 4

A group of three notes is often encountered, a figure Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach called the“three-​note slide” and realized on the beat. (Example 3.21) Even so, one has to take into account the context of the figure. In Example 3.22, the three grace notes are always heard before the following sixteenth notes.

Arpeggios As with other issues concerning ornamentation, the earlier performance practice was changing. Thus, starting the arpeggio before the beat with the uppermost note on the beat was becoming more common than starting with the lowermost note on the beat. Beethoven seldom used the vertical wavy line to indicate an arpeggio in the sonatas, preferring to use grace notes instead. This preference, coupled with the musical context of many of his arpeggios, suggests following the newer performance practice most of the time. The opening chord of the op. 31, no. 2, is, however, written as an arpeggio at the beginning of the movement. Later in the movement the arpeggio appears as grace notes. (Example 3.23) Perhaps Beethoven notated grace notes in the later measure because the arpeggios are longer, and he thought writing them as in the opening would confuse the eye. In both cases, the uppermost note of the arpeggio is the first note of one of the most important motifs of the movement, so the tradition of playing it as the downbeat is very strong. Moreover, playing the opening arpeggio of the second movement in the same way contributes to a feeling of unity between the movements.

 

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Example 3.23 

a) Op. 31, no. 2, 1st movement, measure 1

b) Op. 31, no. 2, 1st movement, measure 93 (97)

Example 3.24  Op. 111, 1st movement, measure 2

Example 3.25  Op. 2, no. 2, 1st movement, measures 8–​9

Similar reasoning can be applied to the arpeggios in the opening of the op. 111. (Example 3.24) In two instances editors have added arpeggio markings, although they do not exist in the early sources. In the first case, almost all editions show an arpeggio where none exists in the first edition (there is no autograph). (Example 3.25) In the second case, most recent editions follow both the autograph and the first edition in omitting the arpeggio. The fact that the chord encompasses the interval of a minor ninth invites players with small hands to make some adjustment. (Example 3.26) It is likely that Hans von Bülow started the tradition of playing the op. 26 chord with an arpeggio, for in his edition he attempted to justify doing so on aesthetic

 

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Example 3.26  Op. 26, 1st movement, measure 4

grounds as well as for ease of execution. He cited other cases in the piano sonatas where arpeggios were written out with grace notes by the composer and believed this case to be analogous. He realized the arpeggio with the lowermost note on the beat and recommended adding an accent to the delayed uppermost note for melodic continuity.

Use of the Damper Pedal Haydn was the first major composer to notate damper pedal effects in his piano music. (See, for example, Hob. XVI/​50, first movement, measures 73–​74 and 120–​1.) Beethoven followed his teacher’s model with more extensive markings. These indications show that the damper pedal was considered a special effect rather than a tool to enhance legato playing. The damper pedal was simply one of several such effects piano makers built into their instruments, many of the others having been discontinued. (See, for example, the description of Beethoven’s Érard piano in Chapter 2, pp. 17–18.) The first example of pedal marks in the Beethoven sonatas occurs in the op. 26, where tonic sonority is enriched at the ends of the first and fourth movements and in the drumroll imitations in the trio of the funeral march. In these instances there is no blurring of different harmonies, but only the reinforcement of one harmony. The op. 27, no. 2, however, presents a more complex problem for the performer, for at the opening of the first movement, Beethoven insisted with two sets of directions that the dampers not be used for the movement. If taken literally, these directions would produce a blurring of different harmonies that would seem excessive to our ears today. Even Beethoven’s student Carl Czerny advised that the pedal should be changed for each new bass note.2 Many others, however, believe that Beethoven must have had some atmospheric effect in mind when he wrote these instructions. This assumption is supported by   CZY, 49.

2

 

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markings in other Beethoven piano music wherein harmonies are mixed, often tonic and dominant, or melodic lines blurred. Two instances present well-​known challenges to performers. The opening movement of the op. 31, no. 2, contains two recitative-​like sections in its recapitulation at measures 143–​48 (147–​52) and 153–​58 (157–​62) wherein melodic lines with several conjunct intervals are marked to be pedaled. In this case, Czerny directs the pedal be held for the entire length of each recitative, adding that the effect should be that of “one complaining at a distance.” The rondo of the op. 53 contains pedal markings that sustain tonic and dominant pedal points through melodic and accompaniment figuration that mixes the two harmonies. Although some pianos of the period, including Beethoven’s Broadwood, had a split damper pedal, a device that permitted pedaling the upper and lower halves of the keyboard, the disposition of upper-​register figuration in this case is such that the device would not be effective. Moreover, the Érard piano Beethoven was using when he composed the op. 53 was not equipped with such a pedal. Pedal markings occur with increasing frequency after the op.  53 and are indicated in op. 81a and the last five sonatas. Beethoven’s release markings are almost always very precise throughout and are consistent for the most part in autographs and first editions. There is no question that the instruments Beethoven used were less sonorous than those of later periods, thus accommodating harmonic mixtures more discreetly. Still, instruments of Beethoven’s time showed some degree of coloration when his indications were followed. Moreover, the composer’s sensitivity to the sonority produced when the damper pedal is used is exemplified in the last movement of the op.  27, no.  2, where in the autograph he indicates different coloration for the same musical idea, one with pedal and one without. (Example 3.27)3 Today’s performers need not make adjustments in passages of compatible harmonies. Even if the sonority is greater than would have been produced on period pianos, Beethoven’s style is grand enough to absorb the increased sonority and often be enhanced by it. On the other hand, pedaling mixed harmonies and melodic lines with small intervals has a history of being considered problematic. Editors and scholars have suggested various adjustments for playing the music on later pianos. These include quick pedal changes in which some sonority carries over, not pressing the pedal all the way down, and late pedal changes that produce fleeting blurring before the onset of clarity. The sostenuto (middle) pedal was patented by Albert Steinway in 1874, after experiments in 1862 by Claude Montal and other French builders. As it became

  Ibid., 53.

3

 

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Considerations

Example 3.27  Op. 27, no. 2, 3rd movement, measures 163–​66 (164–​67)

available on modern pianos, some performers have enlisted it in various ways to sustain Beethoven’s low bass notes or to create overtones as a substitute for the blurring created by the damper pedal. Other performers have eschewed making such adjustments and preferred using Beethoven’s pedal markings, relying on delicacy of touch and careful balance to achieve the desired sonority.

Use of the Una Corda Pedal Beethoven began indicating use of the una corda around 1804 in the Piano Concerto no. 4, op. 58, where he indicated applying it throughout the second movement. In the cadenza of that movement, he directs the performer to release the pedal by increments, effecting a gradual return from one string to full sonority. This gradual shifting of the una corda was practical on some pianos of the day, and the same effect is sought in both the op. 106 and and the op. 110. (Example 3.28)

 

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Example 3.28 

(a) Op. 106, 3rd movement, measures 76–​77

(b) Op. 106, 3rd movement, measure 87

(c) Op. 110. 3rd movement, measure 165

There is some evidence to suggest that Beethoven was as sensitive to the change in timbre as to that in dynamics in the use of the una corda. The end of the slow movement of the op. 106 shows dynamics decreasing from pp to ppp, at the same time as the release of the una corda for the final chord. Since the release would seem to contradict the dynamic scheme, some believe that the composer sought a change in color for the final chord in addition to the change in dynamics. Others believe that the direction to release the una corda was meant to set up the sonority for the ensuing movement. (Example 3.29)

 

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Example 3.29  Op. 106, 3rd movement, measures 186–​87

Example 3.30  Op. 110, 3rd movement, measures 131–​36

Another example that suggests sensitivity to timbre is in the op.  110, where the composer marked both una corda and an ensuing crescendo and diminuendo. (Example 3.30) That such sensitivity was shared by musicians of the time is suggested by Czerny’s caution to use the una corda sparingly and only when “another species of tone” was desired.4   Carl Czerny, Complete Theoretical and Practical Piano Forte School, Vol. III:65, trans. J. A. Hamilton, (London, R. Cocks, 1839). 4

 

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Example 3.31  Op. 7, 4th movement, measures 154–​55 (157–​58)

Czerny recommended its use in the op. 7 at the point in the last movement where a sudden, unexpected modulation occurs, once again suggesting timbre (color) change in addition to dynamic contrast. (Example 3.31) Example 3.32  Op. 57, 1st movement, measures 9–​13

Articulation Beethoven’s articulation markings are generally quite precise, once reading his handwriting in the autographs is mastered. The correlation between what he must have heard and what he wrote is incredibly high. Often articulation that seems inconsistent upon first encounter becomes logical as a new perspective emerges. As these new relationships are recognized, understanding of the music deepens, and appreciation for the composer’s genius grows.

 

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Considerations

Take, for example, the opening measures of the op. 57. (Example 3.32) In the autograph the quarter note in the left hand on the seventh beat of measure 10 is marked with a staccato, but the quarter note in the analogous place in measure 12 is without a staccato. Many editors have assumed the two notes should be the same, either adding a staccato in measure 10 or removing it in measure 12. However, the irregularity could make sense if one regards the low-​regsiter motive in the left hand as a device to build tention, moving from a staccato first quarter note to non-​staccato for subsequent ones, this articulation variation enhancing the ritardando and later the abrupt shift in dynamics and return to tempo at measure 13. Beethoven’s slurring has generated considerable speculation, for his marks sometimes seem contrary to groupings deemed musical in light of nineteenth-​century concepts of long-​line legato. A well-​known case in point is the opening theme from the second movement of the op. 13. (Example 3.33) Later musical thought would dictate that the eighth note measure 2 be regarded as an upbeat to what follows in measure 3, or that the second beat of measures 5 and 6 should be the ends of slurs, followed by upbeats. Nineteenth-​century editors often changed the slurring to groupings that reflected this point of view. One must approach Beethoven’s slurring with the realization that the pedal was not used to effect legato at this time. If one eschews the use of the pedal to connect ideas, it becomes apparent that Beethoven’s slurs are indications of what groups of notes are to be played legato in a single hand position. This logic can be applied throughout the sonatas, and in many passages it solves seemingly inexplicable groupings of notes. Performers will need to decide to what extent these groupings should be heard, even if legato (syncopated) pedal technique Example 3.33  Op. 13, 2nd movement, measures 1–​8

 

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Example 3.34  Op. 13, 3rd movement, upbeat to measures 1–​4

is used, but there can be little doubt but that the composer heard and played the theme in the groupings he indicated. Considering hand position groups will not answer all slurring questions, however. Understanding many seemingly awkward slurs sometimes requires adjusting one’s concept of the music. In the opening of the third movement of the op. 13 (Example 3.34), extending the slur at the end of measure 1 across the bar line to the downbeat of measure 2 seems both logical and musical. The phrase would thus be tapered, ending on the downbeat of measure 2. The end of the second phrase, however, unfolds with staccato repeated notes, ending with a strong downbeat at measure 4.  If symmetry between the two phrase endings is to be maintained, then a strong downbeat must be in place at measure 2. This thinking suggests that Beethoven’s articulation pattern is logical, and the slurring he marked is correct. Articulation patterns that involve short groups of notes should be understood in the context of both the aforementioned discreet use of the damper pedal and the sonority of the instruments of the time. Although the piano was rapidly becoming the instrument of choice instead of earlier instruments, its sonority was limited when compared to that of today’s instruments. Moreover, articulation had been a significant expressive tool in the music of the piano’s forerunners. Its power had not yet been eroded by nineteenth-​century aesthetics or by later instruments and technical styles. Long lines, sustained sonority, legato pedaling, and weight touch were all products of a period that Beethoven may have foreshadowed in many ways but which still was not in full bloom. An examination of Beethoven’s scores shows that he regarded articulation patterns as an integral part of the music. This leads us to the conclusion that these patterns should be heard. Realizing such patterns often demands an agile finger technique, one that permits the articulation to be heard clearly while maintaining the overall tempo and continuity of the passage. (Example 3.35)

 

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Example 3.35 

(a) Op. 10, no. 3, 1st movement, measures 60–​64

(b) Op. 78, 2nd movement, measures 1–​4 and 12–​13

An important area in which the composer’s scores are unclear is that of notes attended by a dot or a wedge. In an often-​quoted letter, Beethoven wrote, “Where there is a dot above a note, a wedge must not be put, and vice-​versa.”5 These directions were written as part of a letter correcting violin parts in the Quartet, op. 132, but presumably they could be applied to piano music as well. Thus one might assume that the presence of these symbols in piano music would direct a different touch, the wedge representing a heavier touch applied to a short note. However, an examination of the autographs and the early publications shows   AND III, 1241–​42.

5

 

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symbols above notes in a variety of random shapes and thicknesses, making it impossible to identify dots and wedges with certainty. Karl Krebs claimed to have solved this enigma in the foreword to his 1898 urtext of the piano sonatas. Having examined several orchestral scores in which Beethoven changed articulation as well as the op. 132 quartet, Krebs concluded that Beethoven used wedges as the symbol for staccato and dots only in the context of slurs, places in which portato was intended. Most subsequent editors have settled on one symbol throughout the sonatas. Only Schenker and Tovey/​Craxton attempt to use two types of accent, these editors being forced to make personal choices in a great number of questionable cases.

Accents and Dynamics Beethoven’s use of accents and dynamics to stimulate interest and create surprise is well-​known (see Chapter 4). He employed traditional markings to achieve these ends, almost always within the range of pp and ff. Only at the ends of the first and third movements of the op. 106 does he indicate ppp. Often dynamic markings are repeated for emphasis. Scholars have attempted to codify Beethoven’s dynamic and accent markings into a system from which principles could be extracted, but despite good intentions, no definitive set of rules has emerged. There are scattered problems throughout the sonatas as follows: • markings missing in repeats of passages; editors often add these without controversy (for example, in op. 14, no. 1, third movement, compare measures 13–​21 with 88–​99) • scores devoid of dynamic markings, as in the op. 49, no. 2, possibly because the composer did not prepare them personally prior to publication • dynamic markings not indicated in openings of movements, and editors having to supply them from later statements of opening material (op. 14, no. 2, first and third movements), or, in cases where analogous passages do not exist, offering differing opinions (op. 10, no. 2, third movement; op. 78, first movement) Despite these exceptions, Beethoven usually paid great attention to dynamics and accents. Moreover, as previously noted, examination of scores leads to the conviction that he consistently notated what he heard with extraordinary accuracy.

Tempo Beethoven used traditional Italian tempo indications at the beginnings of movements throughout the sonatas. Between 1809 and 1823 he sporadically used

 

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German phrases for some works, these phrases addressing the emotional substance of the music. Sometimes these phrases stand alone, sometimes they are used in addition to the Italian. In the piano sonatas, phrases in German are evident in the opp. 81a, 90, and 101. Johann Nepomuk Maetzel (1772–​1838) started making metronomes in Paris in 1815, so the device was not available to Beethoven until rather late in his career. The op. 106 is the only piano sonata for which the composer left metronome markings, those of the first two movements being unaccountably fast. Relatively few editors indicate metronome markings, possibly because the determination of the tempo of a given performance is influenced by external factors such as the instrument and the acoustical setting. Czerny is among the editors who ventured to include markings. His two editions (1842 and 1850) present different markings for some movements. Markings in the later edition are almost always faster. Other editors who have indicated metronome markings are Ignaz Moscheles (1794–​1870), Hans von Bülow (1830–​1894), Alfredo Casella (1883–​1947), Artur Schnabel (1882–​1951), and Kendall Taylor (1905–​1999). Another tempo question to consider is how much fluctuation there might be within the context of a single tempo marking. This fluctuation is not the same as the traditional concept of rubato, the small expressive irregularities of pulse in a short segment, usually a measure or a phrase. Rather, this concerns shifts in tempo that reflect the emotional tenor of the music itself, a practice that is solidly in the performance tradition but has not received as much attention as has rubato. We accept such tempo adjustments in music that was written by the third decade of the nineteenth century, only a few years after Beethoven died. A few examples of the many that might be cited are Chopin’s g minor Ballade op. 23 (1831–​1835) and Schumann’s three sonatas, as well as the Fantasia op. 15 (1833–​1838). One might ask whether that tradition had begun during Beethoven’s lifetime, and, if so, to what extent it might be applied to his piano music. One report of Beethoven’s playing suggests that this practice was in place. Unfortunately, it comes from Beethoven’s secretary Anton Schindler, whose writings were discredited by contemporaries and even more by recent research. Still, it is worth noting that in the 1840 edition of Schindler’s biography of Beethoven, there is a description of Beethoven’s performance of the two op. 14 sonatas that concludes, “[I]‌n every moment Beethoven varied the tempo as the feelings changed.”6 Schindler omitted this report in the 1860 edition. Musicians have not agreed as to whether such tempo fluctuations in Beethoven are desirable. As noted earlier, Artur Schnabel incorporated this concept into his edition of the sonatas by changing metronome markings within movements. (See Chapter 1, p. 7.) Other musicians are convinced that the importance of structure   Anton Felix Schindler, Beethoven as I  Knew Him, vol. II:  131-​40, trans. Ignaz Moscheles, (London: Henry Colburn, 1840). 6

 

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in classical music mandates striving for a unified tempo. The conductor Arturo Toscanini (1867–​1957), for example, championed the latter concept. Sometimes there is a strong tradition of adjusting the tempo in a specific work. For example, most performers change the tempo of the second theme in the first movement of the op. 53, making this chorale-​like passage somewhat slower than the opening of the movement. Every performer must decide whether tempo adjustments within movements are appropriate in Beethoven’s music. If they are allowable, then one must ask which movements are candidates for such changes and how much change is appropriate. Performance tradition, reflection on emotional content, and individual conviction can help forge such decisions.

 

 

4

Beethoven’s Expressive Legacy

Most musicians feel an overwhelming sense of awe over the magnitude of Beethoven’s creativity, a reverence inspired by his innovative compositional techniques and musical ideas. Such gifts resonated with his time, one of dramatic aesthetic change, one that allowed him to achieve a position both pivotal and significant in the development of Western musical culture. Many of his ideas with regard to structure, relationships of tonality, texture, and dramatic intent can be counted among the earliest examples of trends that reached full bloom in the nineteenth century, and, indeed, in some instances he is credited with having created the very first examples heralding aesthetic change. Supplementing Beethoven’s imaginative creativity is his ability to use music as an agent for suggesting universal emotions and concepts. Although such communicative power is attributed to all music and acknowledged in cultures around the world, it is nonetheless difficult to pin down exact meanings or emotions apart from generalizations that are often described in broad terms such as “happy” or “sad,” “serious” or “light.” Beethoven’s genius was such that he was able to create musical ideas that call up a larger palette of human emotions and concepts, from the heroic and victorious to the desolate and tragic, from the extroversion of gruff good-​natured humor to the introversion of deep inner contemplation. Trying to explain these communicative powers in the terms we usually use to describe music does not often enlighten us. Why is Beethoven’s use of common harmonic practice more expressive than those of other composers? Is not Beethoven’s dominant-​to-​tonic harmonic progression the same as that used by countless of his contemporaries? Why can a Beethoven slow movement transport us to higher realms of consciousness so effectively, while the slow movements of others are merely pleasing? Why do Beethoven’s sonorities call up the elation of man’s victory over cosmic adversaries, while the sonorities of others merely suggest earthbound excitement? Such questions resist answers. We encounter the same difficulty in trying to define spiritual values. Believers state they have received spiritual revelations. They try to define their experience in terms others may understand, but they insist their explanations are only an echo of the experience itself. They state that only by 51

 

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partaking of the experience can one understand, know, and believe, and they exhort others to initiate processes with which to embrace the experience. They are convinced that those who quest will be rewarded and join their brotherhood of believers. Those who do not will remain skeptics. So it is with Beethoven’s power. Generations of musicians, listeners, and scholars testify to the wonder of Beethoven’s ability to move, elevate, and enlighten through his music. They attempt to define a totality that is more than the sum of structural, rhythmic, or harmonic analyses. They vow that they have been richly rewarded by seeking the undefinable and urge others to reach for this mystical experience. And indeed, a colony of believers has emerged with each new generation. Despite the difficulty of putting Beethoven’s magic into words, let us, nonetheless, examine instances of his remarkable musical thought in the context of the piano sonatas. Looking at these isolated examples serves to heighten awareness of the composer’s extraordinary inventiveness and enhance personal response. Even for those who are already believers, such observations can stimulate awareness, leading to an even more significant relationship with the music. For those who perform this music, such study is a means through which to internalize it, achieving power and conviction.

Sonority Beethoven’s fascination with sonority and its impact on emotional intensity was evident throughout his creative life. Examples abound from the early piano sonatas onward. Several characteristics come to mind: • • • • •

innovative spacing of intervals using extreme registers of the keyboard writing piano music that suggests the timbres of other instruments employing widely varied dynamic changes, often within short time segments indicating accentuation, often sudden and on weak metric beats

These characteristics work together in varying degrees, so considering them separately is but a means through which we contemplate the composer’s tools. Examining any given technique usually reveals one or more complementary techniques. Thus when there is focus on intervallic spacing, for example, the realization may emerge that the dynamics of the passage, the register of the keyboard, or the accentuation contributes in almost equal measure to the emotional effect. Even so, isolating each technique is an exercise that enhances our sensitivity to the composer’s expressive goals.

 

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Spacing Intervals Beethoven’s use of intervallic spacing to establish emotional content is often observed in the context of using chords or arpeggios with intervals in close position, often referred to as “thick” textures. These are frequently presented in low registers of the keyboard, where closely spaced intervals create sonorities that possibly suggest strength, authority, mystery, or tragedy. Examples of thick textures can be found in virtually every movement of the sonatas, often in an opening sonority that sets an emotional tone. For example, the initial sound of the op. 13 “Pathétique” conveys overwhelming power due in part to the density of the intervallic disposition of the first chord. Similarly, the profound sadness of the Largo mesto of the op. 10, no. 3, second movement, is established by the close intervals of the d minor chord attending the opening melodic phrase. The suspense of the opening of the op. 31, no. 2 (“Tempest”) takes effect immediately in part because of the uncertainty implied by inversion of the dominant harmony but also because of the low, close intervals of the broken chord itself. An example of close intervals in the upper registers of the keyboard is the opening of the op. 106 (“Hammerklavier”), where the high-​pitched full chords create an arresting effect, one suggesting sudden excitement, energy, or even alarm. Beethoven also extended intervallic spacing beyond the norm. Consider the effect of the opening of the op. 57 (“Appassionata”). Here the usual octave spacing is doubled, creating widely spaced parallel lines that convey a sense of mystery, eeriness, even fear, as if the fundamental line was being mirrored by a doppelgänger from another world. How masterfully the composer contrasts this mood with the second statement of the opening theme in measures 16–​23, where rapid fortissimo chords in close position alternate with a fragment of the opening texture, suggesting a fierce battle between the harsh realities of life and the human will to survive.

Extreme Registers of the Keyboard Beethoven exploited the extreme registers of his keyboard from the early sonatas, and as more notes became available to him on the keyboard (see Chapter 2), he made use of them immediately, as if he had been waiting for them. He often wrote a single line in an extreme register, suggesting a timbre associated with some orchestral instrument. Two examples come from the second movements of early sonatas opp. 7 and 10, no. 3. (Example 4.1) In both cases, the emotional response of the listener is stimulated by the contrasting dynamics and ranges, suggesting perhaps that worldly tumult may be halted by the sound of a single bird, a haven of calm amidst the stress of life.

 

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Example 4.1 





(a) Op. 7, 2nd movement, measures 37–​38

(b) Op. 10, no. 3, 2nd movement, measures 80–​81

Example 4.2  Op. 31, no. 2, 2nd movement, measures 101–​103

A similar example of the use of a single texture in a high register occurs at the end of the second movement of the op. 31, no. 2. (Example 4.2) Here the effect is not one of contrasting textures but, rather, the suggestion that after earthbound expression has seemingly concluded, a final word must be added from higher realms. An extraordinary passage occurs in the second movement of the op.  111. (Example 4.3) Beethoven placed two moving lines at opposite ends of the keyboard, creating an effect that suggests extreme attentiveness, a striving for contact with forces at the very edge of the universe, or perhaps deep within one’s consciousness—​an agonizing stretch to perceive the unfathomable.

Suggesting Timbres of Other Instruments in Piano Music The aforementioned examples of the use of extreme registers also serve as instances which suggest other instruments. A  monophonic phrase or fragment in a high register may remind many listeners of a flute. Examples influenced by percussion instruments include the tremolo figures that imitate drumrolls in the trio of the funeral march of the op. 26 (Example 4.4); the suggestion of low

 

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Example 4.3  Op. 111, 2nd movement, measures 116–​19 (124–​27)

Example 4.4  Op. 26, 3rd movement, measures 31–​32

drumrolls in the second movement of the op. 31, no. 2, here creating an ominous undercurrent that punctuates the chorale-​like texture played by the right hand (measures 17–​19, etc.); the percussion-​like drive of the re-​transition at the end of the development section of the op. 53, first movement, starting at measure 142 (144), a dynamo of energy that generates almost unbearable tension for the onset of the recapitulation; the sforzando chords in the coda of the last movement of the op. 57 starting at measures 308–​9 (316–​317), thrusting with overwhelming sonorities, creating arresting points of punctuation that both interrupt and trigger the forward energy. One of Beethoven’s most intriguing imitations is that of pizzicato strings. Bass accompaniment figures marked staccato attend the opening of the second movement of the op. 2, no. 2 (Example 4.5), the middle theme in the slow movement of the op. 7, at measures 25–​36, and the second movement of the op. 28 starting at measure 1.

 

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Example 4.5  Op. 2, no. 2, 2nd movement, measure 1

Example 4.6  Op. 110, 3rd movement, measure 5

The same texture in a rapid setting is applied to the scherzo (second movement) of the op. 31, no. 3, starting at measure 1. If these textures are to sound like pizzicati, the use of the damper pedal must be eschewed to the extent that the effect of the staccato markings is not compromised. In the slow movements of the opp. 106 and 110 Beethoven presents puzzling passages. In both instances the composer tied pairs of repeated notes, but also indicated finger changes Since each of the pairs is tied, why direct players to change fingers each time? (Example 4.6) Some musicians believe that the composer was trying to imitate a vibrato technique called bebung. Such a vibrato is possible on the clavichord, for the metal tangent that rests lightly against the string can be moved by increasing and decreasing the finger pressure on the key. This delicate effect was prized by those who loved the sweet, sensitive sound of the clavichord, notably C. P. E. Bach. Beethoven placed the effect in improvisatory, contemplative settings, underscoring intimacy, suggesting the state of expectancy in meditation that seeks answers or revelations.

Extreme Dynamic Changes, Often within Short Time Segments Throughout the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, composers must have found delight in the dynamic flexibility offered by the recently developed fortepiano. Haydn’s use of forte and piano markings on succeeding eighth notes in the

 

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Example 4.7  Op. 2, no. 1, 4th movement, measures 13–​19

opening movement of the Sonata Hob. XVI/​30 at measures 13–​14 is an early example. Beethoven extended the use of such dynamic contrast immediately. Not long afterward, however, the novelty of showing off a keyboard instrument capable of dynamic contrast was replaced by regarding the piano as a surrogate orchestra. Thus, Beethoven’s keyboard textures increasingly reminded the listener of orchestral timbres. The opening of the final movement of the op. 2, no. 1, is an early case in point. The change of dynamics between piano and forte, combined with the richness of the full chords in the right hand, creates startling and dramatic flashes of color. The listener’s attention is arrested with the unexpected shifts, and a feeling of alert expectation is engendered. The effect is intensified a few bars later at measures 13–​16, where the range of contrast is extended, now from piano to fortissimo. This passage suggests stubborn insistence, a trait attributed to the composer. (Example 4.7) Another early example occurs in the middle section of the second movement of the op. 2, no. 3, starting at measures 26–​28, where the contrast between piano and fortissimo is used not only for drama but also for underscoring the structural units as well, pointing in this case to three groups of three measures (through measure 34). In the op.  78, second movement, sharp dynamic contrast attends the short motives, highlighting the structure. (Example 4.8) Such changes represent surprise, good-​natured teasing, or jocularity. Sudden dynamic changes are often used in conjunction with surprising harmonic shifts. An example of this combination occurs in the second movement of the op.  2, no.  3, where the intrusive surprise of C major chords into an E major passage is enhanced by the sudden onset of a fortissimo dynamic. Here we relive

 

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Example 4.8  Op. 78, 2nd movement, measures 1–​4

Example 4.9  Op. 2, no. 3, 2nd movement, measures 51–​54

Example 4.10  Op. 2, no. 2, 2nd movement, measures 57–​58

musically life’s unexpected intrusions, in this case powerful enough to claim our full attention but ultimately nonthreatening. (Example 4.9) Three surprises are combined in the second movement of the op. 2, no. 2, where an unexpected coda-​like section is announced with a sudden fortissimo and a change from D major to the parallel minor. This passage comes at a strategic point in the structure, a point at which we are certainly primed to hear the final D major resolution of the movement. The surge into d minor and temporary excursion into B♭ major reflect the moments in life when expectations of security and repose are upset by inexplicable forces, and we are forced into a detour that may be both unsettling and strange. (Example 4.10)

 

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Accentuation, Often Sudden and on Weak Beats In the exposition of the opening movement of the op. 2, no. 1, the composer sets the stage for a style that bristles with sforzandi. Here accents are built into the opening theme and the second theme. (Example 4.11) The quirky syncopated accents in the bass line at the climax of the exposition set the listener on edge and generate sounds that surely must have seemed rude to listeners of the period and still retain a good deal of their power. (Example 4.12) There are countless similar examples of accented syncopation used as a propulsion device, sometimes to the extent that it almost causes the listener to lose the downbeats. (Example 4.13) Often these accents form a pattern that cuts across voice levels and utilizes much of the compass of the piano. Note the complexity of the pattern presented in the development section of the first movement of the op. 2, no. 1, a passage suggesting that excitement and complexity often go hand in hand. (Example 4.14) Example 4.11 

(a) Op. 2, no. 1, 1st movement, measures 5–​6

(b) Op. 2, no. 1, 1st movement, measures 21–​22

Example 4.12  Op. 2, no. 1, 1st movement, measures 33–​34

 

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Example 4.13  Op. 27, no. 1, 4th movement, measures 76–​79

Example 4.14  Op. 2, no. 1, 1st movement, measures 74–​77

Example 4.15  Op. 26, 1st movement, measures 111–​13

Near the end of the fugue in the last movement of the op. 101, the composer uses sforzandi in an ever-​tightening sequence to strengthen the power of the dominant seventh arpeggio that will lead us to the recapitulation of the movement. How often do we feel the pressure closing in on us as we approach strategic junctures in our lives? Many sforzandi carry ominous implications. In the opening movement of the op. 26, the third variation of five is in the parallel minor, and the sforzandi that support its syncopated, static line jab us like the recurrence of fearful or painful patterns. (Example 4.15)

 

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Example 4.16  Op. 31, no. 2, 2nd movement, measures 86–​88

This variation is linked to the tragic funeral march, the third movement of the work, both being in A♭ minor, a key that visually suggests thorniness as it displays its seven flats. Subtle, threatening inevitability is suggested in the second movement of the op. 31, no. 2, as the aforementioned drumroll figuration is combined with syncopated accentuation. (Example 4.16) The extreme range and reiteration of the trills marked sforzando in the fugue from the op. 106 project an aggressiveness that represents the raw frustration and anger all human beings endure at some point in life. (Example 4.17) Beethoven used the sforzando to delineate phrase structure in the middle section of the introduction to the last movement of the op.  53 (“Waldstein”). (Example 4.18) The sforzando on the final thirty-​second note of measure 14 may seem awkward until it is perceived as an upbeat to the phrase that begins on the downbeat of measure 15, one of parallel construction to the upbeat at the end of measure 13.

Structural and Key-​Related Games One of the most powerful ways Beethoven elicited emotional response was by using surprising key relationships. When we compare Beethoven’s manipulation of tonality with that of his less-​gifted contemporaries, we are struck by the intensity and fluidity of his use of keys. In addition, his use of unusual passing harmonies for color is carefully planned and frequent. Generating such color involved such techniques as shifting between parallel major and minor, transitory use of sonorities borrowed from foreign keys, moving to Neapolitan harmonies for several measures, and use of augmented sixth harmonies. Beethoven undoubtedly planned the overall tonality of every work with unusual care, relating whatever key was at hand to a hierarchy of larger units and eventually formulating a conceptual scheme that encompassed passages, sections, movements, and entire works. Within this framework he seemed to relish adding surprise modulations, arrivals in keys that seem far removed from the home key, and on occasion

 

Example 4.17  Op. 106, 4th movement, measures 235–​42

Example 4.18  Op. 53, 2nd movement, measures 13–​15

 

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an almost obsessive prolongation of dominant tension before resolution. One can imagine Beethoven’s mischievous delight in brandishing the unexpected, teasing, and playing games to delight (or frustrate) listeners whose knowledge of common harmonic practice or structure led to specific expectations. This game-​playing with expected tonality is all the more remarkable because of its effectiveness two hundred years after it was conceived. Performers and audiences still react to the drama of Beethoven’s conflicts of sonority, the freshness of his modulations, and the humor of his teasing. Thus with each unfolding of a sonic blueprint, we share in the turbulence of his emotional life, chuckle over his musical jokes, and follow his ascent into ethereal realms. As mentioned above, isolating and analyzing Beethoven’s strokes of genius may seem to dull the brilliance of his creativity. Even so, close inspection of specific examples generates a greater depth of appreciation. Moreover, after the analysis takes place, the wonder returns with greater intensity as we step back from the detail and respond anew to the emotional content of the music. Many of the examples noted at this point are also highlighted later in the context of each sonata. Bringing the examples together here, however, suggests the extent to which the composer used a given technique. • • • • • •

changing the multi-​movement concept of the keyboard sonata challenging the expectations of sonata-​allegro form starting movements with conflicting or ambivalent sonorities use of dominant or dominant-​like sonorities the recapitulation “turnaround” use of surprising structural or harmonic changes to close movements

Changing the Multi-​Movement Concept of the Keyboard Sonata Beethoven expanded the concept of the keyboard sonata by adding the so-​called dance movement between the slow movement and the final movement. The pattern typical in keyboard sonatas of both Haydn and Mozart consisted of three movements, fast-​slow-​fast. Exceptions to this pattern exist, such as some two-​movement sonatas and early suite-​like multiple-​movement sonatas of Haydn. Beethoven’s intent in adding the fourth movement was clear. His four-​movement pattern was modeled after that of large concerted works, thus equating the importance of the keyboard sonata to that of the symphony, the string quartet, and other chamber works. Beethoven made a strong case for this concept, for the first four piano sonatas, the three sonatas of the op. 2 and the op. 7, are four-​movement works. Beethoven did not abandon the traditional three-​movement sonata, however. These tend to fall into two types. The first consists of works that are lighter and often slightly less dramatic, such as the op. 10, nos. 1 and 2, the op. 14 set, and the op. 79.

 

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These sonatas have their individual challenges and charms, and they are often among the first Beethoven sonatas recommended by teachers for their students. The second type of three-​movement sonata might be referred to as “dramatic.” This type encompasses the most popular of the sonatas, all with nicknames, the op. 13 (“Pathétique”), op. 27, no. 2 (“Moonlight”), op. 31, no. 2 (“Tempest”), op. 53 (“Waldstein”), op. 57 (“Appassionata”), and op. 81a (“Lebewohl”). Three other three-​movement works do not fall into either category: the op. 31, no. 1, op. 109, and op. 110. Like Haydn and Mozart, Beethoven occasionally wrote two-​movement sonatas, many of which have shorter movements. The op. 49 set was designated “easy” from its early publication. Other two-​movement sonatas, the opp.  54, 78, and 90, are more challenging but still compact. The final two-​movement sonata, the op. 111, is among the most difficult works in the keyboard repertoire, in both emotional and technical terms. Having adapted the four-​movement pattern to the keyboard sonata, Beethoven made several changes. The first was to substitute the scherzo for the minuet and trio. This change appears first in the op. 2, nos. 2 and 3. The second change was to add an extra movement that is related to the minuet or scherzo but designated as neither, often using only a tempo marking. In these instances the music itself is often neither dance-​like nor jesting, although much of the time it conforms generally to the structure of the minuet and trio. Movements of this type appear in the op. 7, op. 10, no. 2, op. 27, no. 1, 101, and 110, the last two retaining the structure but changing the meter to duple. Beethoven instituted one of his most influential changes in the op. 26. Having solidified the four-​movement sonata concept, he decided to exchange the positions of the two inner movements, making the fast movement (a scherzo in this case) the second and the slow movement the third. This concept worked well, for the lightness and brevity of the scherzo provides ample contrast to the more serious, extended opening movement, and the slow movement now was a focal point that provided maximum contrast to the energy of the final movement. Beethoven continued this pattern in the opp. 101 and 106. Later composers obviously found it attractive, for it also appears in the keyboard sonatas of many later composers, such as Chopin, Scriabin, Prokofiev, and Barber. Finally, Beethoven altered the traditional role of the final movement of the sonata as a short, light finale. Haydn and Mozart showed tendencies toward strengthening the role of the final movement but stopped short of letting it outshine the opening movement. From the earliest sonatas, Beethoven’s final movements were significant in length and often approximated sonata-​allegro structure. The final movement of the op., 2 no. 1, for example, is in sonata-​allegro form with a middle-​section theme instead of the development. Traditional sonata-​allegro structures appear in the op. 10, no. 1, op. 31, nos. 2 and 3, op. 57, op. 81a, and op. 101. Rondo patterns of ABACABA were closely related to sonata-​allegro form, for they often used B sections that were in the dominant and tonic keys (op. 2, nos. 2 and 3, op. 7, op. 22,

 

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op.  28, and op.  31, no.  1), and C sections sometimes developed earlier themes (op. 27, no. 1, op. 31, no. 1, op. 53, and op. 90). After making the first and last movements more nearly equal in importance and length, Beethoven took the next step, for he conceived the last movement as the focal point of the sonata, downplaying the length and importance of the first movement. This shift of emphasis can be seen as early as the op. 27 set, wherein the final movement is the most extensive of the sonata. It is most clearly exemplified the late sonatas, opp. 101, 106, 109, 110, and 111. These characteristics will be noted in the context of each of the sonatas in Part II of this book.

Challenging the Expectations of Sonata-​Allegro Form The structure known as sonata-​allegro form, or sonata form, evolved gradually during the eighteenth century. Incipient examples of it are found in the two-​part structures of Baroque dance types, as well as the excercisi (“sonatas”) of Domenico Scarlatti (1685–​1757). Haydn’s personal documents indicate the excitement he felt as he extended and solidified the development of thematic material within the context of sonata-​allegro form. By the late eighteenth century, a large number of musical works that followed the sonata-​allegro pattern were created by C.  P. E.  Bach, Haydn, and Mozart, as well as many less-​famous composers. The structure flourished conceptually throughout the eighteenth century, but it was not formalized into an academic blueprint until the early nineteenth century in the writings of E[rnst] T[heodor] A[madeus] Hoffman (1776–​1822), Heinrich Birnbach (1793–​ 1879), and Antoine Reicha (1770–​1836). Even Carl Czerny was influential in this regard with his School of Practical Composition (1848–​49). We cannot know the strength of listeners’ expectations with regard to sonata-​ allegro structure in the last decade of the eighteenth century. Was this concept merely a composer’s tool, or had it penetrated the minds of listeners to the point of generating expectations of musical events or key relationships? Similarly, we do not know whether Beethoven felt he was “breaking the rules” or being creative with an idea that was regarded as malleable. Both Haydn and Mozart experimented with the structure in ways quite similar to the bolder strokes associated primarily with Beethoven. It is thus probable that the structure underwent constant revision in the minds of the great composers long before it was “frozen” by theorists. On the other hand, one senses that some degree of expectation had been established, that composers held a conceptual norm against which to project their fresh ideas. It is this norm, with its multiple expectations, that will serve us in examining Beethoven’s creativity, although our observations need to be tempered with the understanding that the structure was not nearly as rigid as the examples might imply.

 

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Let us briefly review the model. Exposition

Development

Recapitulation

Opening thematic material is stated in the home key. At some point modulation takes place to the dominant in major keys and to the relative major in minor keys, often in conjunction with the onset of new thematic material.

Material heard in the exposition is reworked, using modulation, fragmentation, and extension, often with dramatic gestures. New thematic material is sometimes introduced.

Material in the exposition is repeated. Music first heard in the dominant (in major keys) or the relative major (in minor keys) is now presented in the home key. When the sonata is in a minor key, the parallel major is sometimes used.

One of Beethoven’s favorite devices was setting up the “wrong” key for the second theme area of the exposition. Often he arrived in the “wrong” key and then moved to the expected one. Such manipulations are akin to the delightful small surprises we experience in living:  unexpectedly encountering something beautiful, a new taste, a detail of nature, or a mellifluous sound. The following schematic shows us the extent to which Beethoven used this device in first movements. Sonata and Key of First Movement

Expected Key of Second Theme Area

Key Beethoven Used

Op. 2, no. 2: A major

Dominant: E major

e minor, then E major

Op. 2, no. 3: C major

Dominant: G major

Two themes: g minor, then G major

Op. 10, no. 3: D major

Dominant: A major

Op. 13: c minor

Relative major: E♭ major

An intervening theme in the submediant (b minor), then A major e♭ minor, then to E♭ major

Op. 31, no. 2: d minor

Relative major: F major

Dominant minor: a minor

Op. 53: C major

Dominant: G major Relative major: A♭ major

Mediant major: E major Both A♭ major and a♭ minor

Dominant: F major Relative major: E♭ major

Submediant major: G major Submediant major: A♭ major

Op. 31, no. 1: G major

Op. 57: f minor Op. 90: e minor Op. 106: B♭ major Op. 111: c minor

Dominant: D major

Relative major: G major

Mediant major and minor (B major alternating with b minor)

Dominant minor: b minor

 

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Although the preceding chart addresses only first movements, examples can be drawn from final movements in sonata-​allegro form. There are four, all in minor, that use the dominant minor in the exposition’s second theme area instead of the relative major: opp. 2, no. 1; 27, no. 2; 31, no. 2; and 57. Two unusual procedures that occur in the op.  31, no.  3, should also be mentioned. The second movement, a scherzo movement in sonata-​allegro form, is in the key of A♭ major. The second theme in the exposition opens in F major, proceeds to B♭ major, and then closes in the expected E♭ major. The recapitulation introduces the second theme in G♭ major, proceeds to E♭ major, and closes in the home key of A♭ major. The fourth movement of this sonata is in E♭ major. Although its exposition is regular in that it hovers around the dominant (B♭ major), the recapitulation presents an unexpected modulation to e♭ minor at the upbeat to measure 200 (202), and as second-​theme material enters, it moves between G♭ major and e♭ minor until the onset of the coda at measure 263 (265). The home key is reestablished, however, throughout the lengthy coda. Thus Beethoven established a subtle link between the second-​and fourth-​movement recapitulations of this work. Besides unexpected key arrivals, Beethoven often used techniques that create a sense of development and drama before the exposition comes to an end. Soon after the listener arrives at a second theme in the exposition, something dramatic begins to happen, once again reminding us of the times in our lives when unexpected events overtake us. In such times, we feel urgency, become involved, and often must initiate action. Beethoven engages our attention similarly. These devices are used in first movements as follows: • expanding the exposition with passagework Op. 2, nos. 2 and 3 Op. 7 Op. 10, no. 3 Op. 13 Op. 22 Op. 28 Op. 31, nos. 1, 2, and 3 Op. 53 Op. 57 Op. 106 Op. 111 • modulating to unexpected keys after the entry of the second theme Op. 2, no. 2 Op. 7 Op. 10, no. 3 Op. 28

 

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• restating part of the opening theme before the exposition ends Op. 2, no. 2 Op. 10, no. 1 Op. 14, no. 1 Op. 22 Op. 31, no. 1 Op. 79 Op. 81a Op. 106 Op. 111 Use of a key other than the tonic at the arrival of the recapitulation does not occur frequently in the sonatas. Rather, Beethoven preferred to build suspense before the recapitulation and use the arrival of the home key as a dramatic event. There is, however, one notable example of a “false” recapitulation, the first movement of the op. 10, no. 2, a movement in the key of F major. The overall spirit of the movement is one of joviality. Beethoven’s intent was obviously humorous as he set up a tonal center of d minor with an almost painful deliberateness at the end of the development section at measures 113–​16 (114–​17). The first theme then appears in the parallel key of D major at the upbeat to measure 118–​29 (119–​30) at the onset of the recapitulation. A deft modulation starting at the upbeat to measure 131 through 136 (132–​137), highlighted by rests, as well as a celebratory reiteration of a motive drawn from the opening theme, brings the movement to its home key. The composer’s humor is still effective! Beethoven frequently alters the statement of the first theme in recapitulations in ways that do not involve tonality. He most often changed the dynamic level, range, or deployment of the recapitulation restatement to increase its intensity. The listener feels a sense of security, elation, or excitement in arriving home after the turbulence of the development. Such feelings, encountered upon returning to familiar territory, resonate with our experiences in life. The following table shows the first movements in which this technique is used. Sonata First Movement

First Theme in Exposition

First Theme in Recapitulation

Op. 2, no. 1

Piano

Forte plus added sforzandi

Op. 2, no. 2

Piano

Forte

Op. 7

Piano

Fortissimo plus a fuller opening chord

Op. 14, no. 1

Piano

Forte plus fuller chords and L.H. scales

Op. 31, no. 1

Piano

Forte

 

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Op. 31 no. 2

Piano

Theme is interspersed with soft recitative-​like passages over long pedal markings

Op. 57

Pianissimo

Added dominant repeated-​note pedal point

Op. 101

No dynamic marking, but crescendo/​diminuendo marks on the first phrase

First four measures deleted. Change of register and a rewritten L.H.

Op. 106

Fortissimo

Fortissimo plus an altered L.H. part

Op. 109

Piano (dolce)

Forte plus a widespread range and rewritten L.H. part

Op. 110

Piano (sanft)

Increased L.H. activity plus expanded R.H. sonorities

Op. 111

Single notes

Octaves plus a more widespread range

Starting Movements with Conflicting or Ambivalent Sonorities In the early sonatas Beethoven satisfied the expectation of establishing the home key of the work clearly in the opening measures. Thus in all of the sonatas through the op. 27, no. 2, the opening notes of the first movement are built upon tonic harmony, by presenting either a tonic chord (op. 2, no. 3, op. 7, op. 10, nos. 1 and 2, op. 13, op. 14, no. 1, op. 22, op. 26, and op. 27, no. 1) or figuration that suggests tonic harmony (op. 2, nos. 1 and 2, op. 10, no. 3, op. 14, no. 2, and op. 27, no. 2). Moreover, in these early works the tonic remains stable during the initial statement of the opening theme. Beginning with the op. 28 Beethoven entered a period of composition wherein a number of sonatas open with conflicting or ambivalent sonorities. This impulse started modestly but became bolder as the concept grew in the composer’s mind. He used it most often in sonatas written between 1802 and 1805 and only occasionally in the remaining sonatas. The following list summarizes this characteristic. Opus 28 opens with a major/​minor seventh chord that functions as a secondary dominant to the subdominant of the sonata’s home key of D major. Opus 31, no. 1, opens clearly in the home key of G major, but the opening theme is restated immediately a whole step lower in the key of F major. Opus 31, no. 2, opens on the first inversion of the dominant. Opus 31, no. 3, opens on the first inversion of the supertonic seventh. The opening sound moves chromatically through a diminished seventh sonority to arrive

 

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solidly on a tonic six-​four chord, after which the home key is ushered in. This progression is so striking that the composer uses it extensively throughout the first movement. Opus 53, like the op. 31, no. 1, opens clearly in its home key, C major, but the opening theme is restated immediately a whole step lower in the key of B♭ major. Opus 57 opens in the home key of f minor, but the opening theme is restated immediately a half-​step higher and with a change of mode in G♭ major. The conflict inherent in this half-​step interval is mirrored by a motive that makes use of the half-​step between the sixth degree of the minor scale and the fifth degree starting at measure 10. Opus 81a opens in the home key of E♭ major, but the opening motive makes use of a deceptive resolution and ends with a c-​minor sonority. Opus 101 begins on the dominant of the home key, A major. Then, through a series of deceptive cadences, never arrives at the tonic but, rather, moves to the second theme area in the expected dominant (E major). Opus 111 begins on a diminished seventh sonority that resolves to the dominant of the home key (c minor). Beethoven showed a decided preference for starting other movements of his piano sonatas on tonic harmonies as well. Middle movements may be written in keys that are different from the home key of the work, but the movements themselves usually start on their tonic. This is especially true of slow movements. One might speculate that the composer felt that the mood of the slow movement, whether contemplative or restful, was best conveyed by the stability achieved by establishing the tonic sonority with the first downbeat of the movement. Even so, there are a few exceptions. The clearest of these is the adagio section of the op.  101. It is significant that the composer wrote Sehnsuchsvol (yearning, longing) at the beginning of this movement, a feeling that he established by writing a first inversion of a dominant seventh sonority on the downbeat of the opening measure. The listener feels the ache of stretching to reach out, the restlessness of wishing for resolution. In the op. 53 the slow introduction to the final movement states its home F major tonality, but it becomes the foundation on which to build an augmented sixth chord, which then resolves to E major. The ambiguity of key heightens the feeling of mystery, expectation, as if waiting for the first light of dawn. Similarly, the opening sonority of the second movement of the op. 81a could be a skeletal outline of the tonic (c minor), but it emerges immediately as a diminished seventh chord that acts as the VII7 to the dominant of the home key. Here the composer provides the program, that of loneliness caused by the absence of a loved one. Dance movements, whether labeled minuets or scherzos, seem to suggest non-​ tonic openings somewhat more frequently. Perhaps the physical movement of the dance itself influenced Beethoven to write music with opening sonorities that needed to move forward in order to resolve.

 

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Sonata

Movement

Opening Harmony

Op. 2, no. 1

Menuetto

The downbeat of the first full measure is the supertonic.

Op. 2, no. 3

Scherzo

The first full measure presents non-​tonic scalar movement.

Op. 26

Scherzo

The downbeat of the first measure is the submediant.

Op. 27, no. 2

Allegretto

The first four measures function in the dominant.

Op. 49, no. 2

Tempo di Menuetto

The first full measure is dominant harmony.

Op. 106

Scherzo

The downbeat of the first full measure is the dominant.

Closing movements that open with non-​tonic harmony include those with a gentle, graceful spirit, as well as those with boisterous vigor. Sonata

Movement and Mood

Opening Harmony

Op. 7

4: poco allegretto e gracioso

Dominant downbeats in measures 1 and 2 resolve to the tonic in measure 3.

Graceful bending Op. 10, no. 1

3: prestissimo

Op. 26

4: allegro

Vigor and abruptness Cheerful energy

Op. 31, no. 1

3: allegretto

Op. 78

2: allegro vivace

Gentleness, cheerfulness, with a pastoral feeling Boisterous fun

The opening is in unison lines implying a harmonic progression of VII to I in the first two measures. The R.H. figuration outlines parallel chords that lead to dominant harmony with no clear resolution until measure 12. Although the first measure seems ambiguous, later harmonization points to dominant harmony that moves to the tonic in measure 2. The opening motive features a jarring augmented sixth that moves to a dominant in its third inversion (measures 1-​2). Short phrases continue to end on dominant or subdominant sonorities that delay the arrival of the tonic until measure 12.

Remarkable improvisatory sections occur in the opp. 106 and 110. Each sets the stage for the culminating finale of the work of which it is a part. In the op. 106 the

 

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improvisation leads directly to a monumental fugue. In the Op. 110 the improvisation precedes a multi-​section finale comprised of slow arioso statements alternating with a fugue that evolves into a climactic section, presenting a quasi-​orchestral statement of its subject. These improvisations move from key to key seemingly at random. The op. 106 section seems to shop for material for the final movement of the work, moving through possible themes or passagework in G♭ major, B major, g♯ minor, and A major. Then a breathtaking arrival of the dominant in the home key of the sonata ushers in the fugue. Beethoven masterfully builds great anticipation in the listener through both key changes and rhythmic vitality. He captures the excitement we feel when an event we have waited for in our lives is about to take place. The op. 110 recitative moves in a different direction. Its purpose is to calm us before embarking on a journey that leads through despair to triumph. Opening in b♭ minor, its goal is to take us to the a♭ minor key of the arioso. It seems to cadence there immediately, but then the composer veers away, suspending us with a dominant seventh that resolves to the foreign key of E major. However, that sonority is also that of the submediant in A♭ minor, so with deft use of diminished seventh harmonies, the composer takes us effortlessly into the key of the meditation. This journey might well mirror the meditative experience in life wherein the mind seems to be drifting in strange realms just before it glides into deep concentration.

Use of Dominant or Dominant-​like Sonorities Exploiting the tension between tonic and dominant (or dominant-​like) sonorities was commonplace in Beethoven’s time. That he was able to infuse this relationship with such extraordinary power is a testimony to his genius. The composer used it in several different ways. First, he used prolongation of the dominant (or dominant-​like) harmony to create tension, forcing the listener to wait for a resolution for extended periods. This sustained dominant function is often in a context of driving excitement, creating intense expectation, but it also appears, albeit less frequently, in more gentle settings, creating the sensation of moving toward a resolution like a falling feather or floating leaves. It appears most frequently in passages that are moving toward restatements of main themes, such as recapitulations or reappearances of the principle theme in a rondo. The clearest examples of this technique tend to be in middle-​period sonatas. Sonata Movement Measure(s) Sets Up Op. 22 1

113–​26

Op. 28 4

101–​13

Texture

Recapitulation Dominant seventh and flat ninth broken chords that unfold over longer L.H. phrases Return of A in Dominant pedal point over a rondo pattern broken chords and passage work, all to be played fortissimo

 

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Op. 31, 1 no. 1

162–​92

Recapitulation Dominant seventh and flat ninth arpeggios and figuration

Op. 31, 3 no. 2

199–​214

Recapitulation Dominant ninth figuration

Op. 53 1

142–​55

Recapitulation A driving ostinato pattern based on the dominant in the L.H. supports rising R.H. fragments through a crescendo

(144–​57) 3

287–​312

Return of A in Soft figuration on dominant a rondo pattern harmony with a flat ninth

3

378–​4 02

A coda marked Powerful dominant fortissimo prestissimo chords rising to a flat ninth and receding

Op. 57 1

123–​34

Recapitulation Brilliant VII7 cadenza-​like patterns sweeping the keyboard and arriving at a dominant pedal point

3

184–​211

Recapitulation Soft VII7 arpeggio fragments slowing the momentum

22–​31

Return of A in Rapid two-​note figures built a rondo pattern around dominant harmony

74–​88

Return of A in A dominant seventh sonority a rondo pattern on the note G functioning as an augmented sixth chord

133–​49

Return of A in A dominant seventh sonority a rondo pattern on the note D functioning as an augmented sixth chord

Op. 78 2

Another way in which the composer uses tonic-​dominant relations is by means of a rapid alternation of the two sonorities to create tension in the following instances. Op. 2, no. 1, 4th movement, Prestissimo, opening theme Op. 57, 3rd movement coda, Prestissimo, measures 308–​25 (316–​34)

The Recapitulation “Turnaround” One of the areas in which Beethoven showed great ingenuity typically occurs just after the first theme is stated in the recapitulation of a sonata-​allegro movement.

 

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Traditional structure guidelines mandate that the entire recapitulation remain in the tonic. Beethoven often veered away from the tonic just after the first theme was stated. He briefly introduced unexpected keys in order to be able to modulate back to the tonic as the second theme area appeared. One might call this brief excursion a “turnaround.” Much of the time it was based on first-​theme material. It could be elaborate or scarcely noticeable. Beethoven’s use of it is reasonably consistent. The following list points to the more obvious uses of this technique. Sonata

Movement/​ Measure(s) Home Key

Op. 2 no. 1

1/​f minor

111–​19

Op.2 no. 2

1/​A major

244–​47 (249–​52)

Op. 2 no. 3

1/​C major 1/​E♭ major

147–​55 (148–​56)

1/​c minor

191–​232

3/​c minor

73–​85

Op. 10, no. 2

1/​F major

153–​62 (154–​63)

Op. 13

1/​c minor

207–​37 (209–​39)

Op. 14, no. 1

103–​6 (104–​7)

Op. 22

1/​E major 1/​B♭ major

Op. 31, no. 2

1/​d minor

159–​71 (163–​75)

3/​d minor

Upbeat to 243–​71

Op. 49, no. 1

1/​g minor

Upbeat to 72–​79

Op. 49, no. 2

1/​G major

75–​81

Op. 53

1/​C major

168–​73 (170–​75)

Op. 57

1/​f minor 1/​F♯ major

Upbeat to 152–​63

Op. 7 Op. 10, no. 1

Op. 78 Op. 79

1/​G major

205–​14

Upbeat to 139–​4 6

63–​74 (65–​76) 138–​41 (139–​42)

Key(s) Used in “Turnaround” b♭ minor D major

C major, F major, D major A♭ major G♭ major, e♭ minor to 2nd theme in F major, then restated in c minor

2nd theme in C major, then material in c minor f minor, E♭ major, A♭ major

D♭ major, e♭ minor, f minor to 2nd theme in f minor, then restated in c minor C major B♭ major, c minor; then sequential chords with secondary dominant upbeats f♯ minor, g minor b♭ minor, f minor, c minor, g minor g minor, B♭ major C major, a minor D♭ major, E♭ major F major

E major, f♯ minor, b minor C major

 

B eethoven’s Ex p re s s ive   L egac y

Op. 101

4/​A major

Op. 106

1/​B♭ major 3/​f♯ minor

Upbeat to 240–​52 (241–​53) Upbeat to 239–​72 (245–​78) 113–​23

A major, D major e♭ minor, G♭ major, b minor D major, b minor, then to the F♯ major second theme area

Op. 109

1/​E major

61–​62

Op. 110

1/​A♭ major

67–​77

E major

Upbeat to 122–​31 (123–​32)

Starting from C major, moving to the second theme in f minor and c minor

Op. 111

1/​c minor

75

Within the second theme to C major

Using Surprising Sstructural or Harmonic Changes to Close Movements Beethoven used surprising sonorities near ends of movements, introducing them with codas in some cases and very nearly at the end of the movement in others. When these departures were used as codas, they could become second development sections. In the early sonatas, such “developmental” codas were often brief. The use of related keys was fleeting, and the home key returned without much delay. Later the composer wrote longer codas and his daring increased, for the departures from the home key were longer and more firmly established. It is apparent that Beethoven was playing with listeners’ expectations, for just when the movement is about to close, it goes in another direction. The listener wonders where the new journey will lead and for how long. The following list provides some examples from sonata movements in which this procedure is used. Note that excursions into non-​home keys may occur early or late in the coda. At times transient harmonies, such as parallel diminished seventh chords, create exciting turbulence. In the following list, a point is noted where the home key is reestablished. After that point progressions in the home key may still take place, but the impulse to surprise with sudden excursions away from the home key has subsided. The list does not include movements that have codas that do not function developmentally in that they stay close to the home key. In some cases, whether the composer firmly established a foreign key may, indeed, be a matter for debate, for in these cases the departure is either brief or uses closely related sonorities. Those cases have been noted in this list only if the coda gives the impression of being developmental rather than simply winding down the movement.

 

Sonata

Movement/​ Measure at Home Key Which Coda Begins

Non-​home Keys/​Measures

Measures from the End When the Home Key Returns

Op. 2, no. 2

2/​D major

58

68–​80

4/​A major

160

d minor/​58–​59 B♭ major/​6 0–​63

Op. 2, no. 3

Op. 7

1/​C major

1/​E♭ major 4/​E♭ major

218 (219)

232–​57 (233–​58)

313

c minor/​313–​16

323–​62

155 (158)

E minor/​155–​61 (158–​6 4) D♭ major/​104–​12

166–​83 (169–​86)

3/​c minor

104

Op. 10 no. 3

2/​d minor

65

Op. 27, no. 2

a minor/​166–​67 (167–​68) A♭ major/​218–​23 (219–​24)

173–​87 (174–​88)

Diminished 7th harmonies/​224–​31 (225–​32)

Op. 10, no. 1

Op. 13

B♭ major/​159–​6 4 (160–​65)

E♭ major/​67

114–​22 (to C major, the parallel major) 72–​87

Diminished 7th harmonies with resolutions/​68–​71 4/​D major

Upbeat to measure 100

3/​c minor 3/​c♯ minor

182 159 (160)

g minor/​101

progressions in E♭ major/​102–​3 A♭ major/​198–​206 f♯ minor and

diminished 7th harmonies/​163–​6 6 (164–​67) f♯ minor/​177–​82

106–​13

208–​10 183–​200 (184–​201)

(178–​83) Op. 28

4/​D major

Upbeat to 169

G major/​Upbeat to Upbeat to 193–​210 169–​76

Op. 31, no.2

3/​d minor

319

g minor/​323–​30 A major/​331–​3

351–​9 9

 

Op. 31 no. 3

Op. 53

1/​E♭ major

220

A♭ major, D♭ major,

233–​53

e♭ minor,

f minor/​220–​30

4/​E♭ major

263 (265)

1/​C major

249 (251)

f minor/​291–​94 Upbeat to 309–​33 (293–​96) (311–​35) A♭ major/​295–​306 (297–​308) D♭ major 259–​302 (261–​304) b♭ minor c minor f minor

2/​C major (Rondo)

403

249–​59 (251–​61) A♭ major,

515–​543

f minor, D♭ major,

b♭ minor/​ 441–​54

c minor A♭ major,

f minor/​ Op. 57

Op. 78

1/​f minor

206

493–​506 D♭ major/​ 206–​13

3/​f minor

308 (316)

A♭ major/​

1/​F♯ major

Op. 81a 1/​E♭ major

G♭ major/​218–​19 b♭ minor/​220–​28

231–​62

324–​61 (333–​71)

316–​21 (325–​30) Upbeat to 98 (100)

b minor/​98–​100 (100–​2)

102–​5 (104–​8)

158 (160)

f minor/​158–​74 (160–​76) e♭ minor/​

197–​255

F major/​317–​22 (318–​23)

324–​61 (325–​62)

(199–​257)

175–​84 (177–​86) Op. 101 4/​A major

303 (304)

 

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When Beethoven introduces foreign keys very near the final cadence, the effect is almost one of teasing. At that point the listener is prepared to arrive at the home key, but instead is suddenly taken to some other key. When the home key is reintroduced rapidly, it sounds especially strong as a result of the detour.

 

5

The Windmills of Beethoven’s Mind

Some may regard trying to fathom possible predilections in Beethoven’s creative thinking as mere speculation rather than artistic reflection. Justification for such a foray may be found in an analogy focusing on patterns of human behavior. If we want to draw close to someone, we often do so by observing details of his or her personality, trying to find out personal preferences: favorite colors, foods, drinks, books, movies, or mode of dress, as well as reactions to external stimuli. If our attention is directed toward someone for whom we have an emotional attachment, accumulating such details becomes a pleasurable pastime, for we feel that this knowledge brings us closer to the person in question. After continued observation, we feel we know that person’s tastes and behavior intimately. We become comfortable and confident in our relationship with that person. This analogy suggests the reason for the following observations, for it is believed that observation of favored patterns and speculation as to possible connections in Beethoven’s creative process will result in an intimate relationship with his music.

Key Relationships Between Movements Key changes between movements in the piano sonatas take place between the first and second movements in all but five of the sonatas, the second often being the slow movement. Three of the five exceptions are two-​movement sonatas, neither movement slow, op.  49, no.  2, op.  54, and op.  78. In the remaining two exceptions, opp. 26 and 106, the order of the slow movement and the dance movement is reversed, and the key change is reserved for the slow movement as a third movement. Two other sonatas whose slow movement comes after a rapid second movement, op. 27, no. 1, and op. 101, change keys for both the second and third movements. Final movements of three-​and four-​movement sonatas are almost always in the home key of the sonata, the exceptions being three two-​movement sonatas: op. 49 no. 1, op. 90, and op. 111, where in all three the change is from from minor to the parallel major

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Minuet-​or scherzo-​type movements remain in the home key of the sonata when they appear as the third movement of four: op. 2, nos. 1, 2, and 3, op. 7, op. 22, op. 28, and op. 31, no. 3. Sometimes movements show the typical structure and triple meter of the minuet and trio but are not designated either minuet or scherzo by the composer: op. 7, op. 10, no. 2, op. 14, no. 1, and op. 27, nos. 1 and 2. In these cases, the key is not the home key, except for the op. 7. Two examples of the typical structure in duple meter are the second movement of op. 101, a march, and the op. 110. An anomalous case is that of the op. 31, no. 3, wherein the second movement is presented as a scherzo in an alternate key, but neither the structure nor the meter is typical. A breakdown of key relationships reveals which ones Beethoven preferred. He used three relationships, use of the parallel major or minor being the favorite, followed by a relationship at the interval of a third (major or minor), and finally a shift to the subdominant. Note that he never used the key of the dominant, a predilection shared by both Haydn and Mozart in keyboard sonatas, albeit with a few exceptions. In thirteen sonatas the second or slow movement is in the parallel major or minor: • • • • • • • • • • • • •

op. 2, no. 1, f minor/​F major op. 10, no. 2, F major/​f minor op. 10, no. 3, D major/​d minor op. 14, no. 1, E major/​e minor op. 26, A♭ major/​a♭ minor (slow movement is #3) op. 27, no. 2, c♯ minor/​D♭ major op. 28, D major/​d minor op. 79, G major/​g minor op. 90, e minor/​E major op. 101, A major/​a minor (slow movement is #3) op. 109, E major/​e minor op. 110, A♭ major/​a♭ minor (slow movement is #3) op. 111, c minor/​C major

In eleven of the sonatas the second or slow movement is a third up or down from the tonic: • • • • •

op. 2, no. 3, C major/​E major (mediant major)† op. 7, E♭ major/​C major (submediant major) op. 10, no. 1, c minor/​A♭ major (regular submdediant)+ op. 13, c minor/​A♭ major (regular submediant)+ op.  27, no.  1, E♭ major/​c minor (submediant; also relative minor) (second movement)*

 

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op. 32, no. 2, d minor/​B♭ major (submedienat major) op. 57, f minor/​D♭ major (submediant major)+ op. 81a, E♭ major/​c minor (regular submediant; also relative minor)* op. 101, A major/​F major (second movement)† op.  106, B♭ major/​f♯ minor (enharmonically a major third down; slow movement is #3)† • op. 110, A♭ major/​f minor (submediant; also relative minor; second movement)*

• • • • •

+

+ = minor-​key sonatas in which the slow movement is in the major submediant * = major-​key sonatas in which the second movement is in the relative minor † = major-​key sonatas in which the second or slow movement is a major third away, in a new key

In seven of the sonatas the second or slow movement is in the subdominant: • • • • • • •

op. 2, no. 2, A major/​D major op. 14, no. 2, G major/​C major op. 22, B♭ major/​E♭ major op. 27, no. 1, E♭ major/​A♭ major (slow movement is #3) op. 31, no. 1, G major/​C major op. 31, no. 3, E♭ major/​A♭ major op. 53, C major/​F major

Similarities Between Passages in the Same Key in Different Sonatas Musicians are well acquainted with relating keys to emotions, colors, or musical gestures. Such associations are obvious for the major and minor modes, but they also exist, with somewhat less definition, for all keys. These associations with keys are possibly generated by their range relative to that of the human voice, by their visual representationon the staff, or, for keyboard players, by the way playing in certain keys feels or looks on the keyboard. Beethoven probably responded to one or more of these influences, perhaps consciously, perhaps not. The following are examples.

Op.  2, no. 1, and Op. 57 (f minor) • Both open with broken tonic arpeggios. • Both present second themes that grow out of first themes in profile and rhythm. • Both second-​theme areas introduce elements of a♭ minor, using flat thirds and 6ths of the A♭ major scale.

 

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Considerations

• Both development sections develop the first theme and the second theme in turn. • Both last movements are in sonata-​allegro form and present the second theme of the exposition in the dominant minor, closing with material derived from the opening theme.

Op.  2, no. 2, and Op. 101 (A major) • The first movement of the earlier work and the last movement of the later work outline the tonic chord with an answering short, conjunct motive.

Op.  2, no. 2, and Op. 106 (f-​sharp minor) • The middle section of the slow movement of the earlier work and the slow movement of the later work use the striking harmonic progression of f♯ minor to the Neapolitan sixth (first inversion of G major) as an expressive device.

Op.  2, no. 3, and Op. 53 (C major) • Both open with the same tonic chord in the same position divided the same way between the hands (only the registers differ). • The mediant (E major) is important in both, as the second movement in the earlier work and as the second theme of the first movement in the later one.

Op.  7, Op. 27, no. 1, Op. 31, no. 3, and Op. 81a (E-​flat major) • All of these sonatas open with a focus on the tonic triad just above middle C. The op. 7 moves from the third to the root, the op. 27, no. 1, moves from the fifth to the third, and the op.  31, no.  3, opens with an ambivalent harmony (II6-​5) but arrives with a decorated move from the third to the root. The Lebewohl motive that opens op. 81a also moves from the third through a passing tone to the root. All of these are within the same octave on the keyboard.

Op.  10, no. 1, and Op. 13 (c minor) • Both open with the same tonic chord in the same voicing, an octave apart. • Both second movements are in A♭ and open with the progression I–​V–​I; also of note is the similarity of melodic contour and voicing in the openings of these two movements when compared with the first-​movement openings of opp. 26 and 110.

 

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• Both third movements present the return of the second theme in the parallel major (C major).

Op.  10, no. 2, and Op. 54 (F major) • Both have final movements in a compressed sonata-​allegro form, the exposition being monothematic and the recapitulation being rewritten. Both are of a perpetual movement type. These two movements are the only places in the sonatas where the composer uses this concept.

Op.  10, no. 3, and Op. 28 (D major) • Both sonatas have internal relationships between the first and second themes of their first movements. In the op. 10, no. 3, the first four notes of the first theme form the basis for the second theme. In the op. 28 both the first theme and the second theme start on secondary dominant harmonies, moving to the subdominant in the first theme and to the submediant in the second theme. • Both second movements are in the parallel minor, and both second movements open with the tonic chord in the same position.

Op.  13 and Op. 111 (c minor) • Both sonatas feature lengthy, dramatic first-​movement introductions that use dotted rhythms, possibly influenced by the earlier French overture; both opening phrases make use of the VII7 of the dominant, and the second phrases of both repeat the first phrase idea, this time using the tonic VII7.

Op.  14, no. 1, and Op. 109 (E major) • Both sonatas present a “turnaround” in the first movement recapitulation in C major (see Chapter Four). • Both second movements are in the parallel minor.

Op.  14, no. 2, and Op. 31, no. 1 (G major) • Both sonatas have a second movement in C major.

Op.  22 and Op. 106 (B-​flat major) • Both have an opening theme that begins with an upbeat figure leading to a tonic triad falling third, 5 to 3 in the earlier work and 3 to 1 in the later one.

 

84

Considerations

Op.  26 and Op. 110 (A-​flat major) • Both have a slow movement that appears after a second movement (funeral march and first arioso respectively) in the parallel minor. Beethoven seems to have had favorite gestures with which to open the piano sonatas, for he returns to them throughout the thirty-​two. • outlining the tonic or dominant triad: opp. 2, no. 1; 10, no. 1 (after a tonic chord); 14, no. 2 (decorated); 27, no. 2; 31, no. 2; 49, no. 2; 57; 79 • using the interval of a third as a melodic motive near or at the beginning of the opening movement, sometimes filled in with passing tones:  opp.  2, no.  3; 7; 10, no. 2; 13; 22 (on the downbeat); 27, no. 1; 31, no. 1 (at measure 3); 53; 54 (upbeat); 78 (at upbeat to measure 5); 81a; 90; 106 (at measure 2); 109 (upbeat); 110; 111 (at measure 20) • scale segments:  opp.  2, no.  2; 10, no.  3; 28 (re-​harmonized); 31, no.  1; 101 (re-​harmonized)

Connections Between Different Movements of the Same Sonata Connections between movements within a sonata range from the obvious to the subtle. One can only guess how many of these were consciously formed by the composer. Surely the more obvious ones were. One could also argue that all connections were planned, because they can be found with consistency. The following list contains much speculation. Some connections may be subliminal; some may seem far-​fetched. On the other hand, those who find fascination in such speculations and initiate their own search will likely discover even more connections.

Op. 2, no. 1 • The first and fourth movements open with motifs that end on the tonic, on the same pitch, in the same register. • The first and second movements open on the fifth of the scale, the first-​movement arpeggio rising to the third of the scale (in minor), the second movement rising directly to the third of the scale (in major); both movements scan from the third of the scale downward to the root. In addition, the third movement opens with a phrase based on this falling interval of a third, and the trio opens once again with an upbeat on the fifth of the scale, rising to the third of the scale. • There is use of a flat-​six in major keys throughout the sonata.

 

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First movement: exposition, second theme (measures 20, 22, etc.) Second movement: exposition, second theme (measures 21, 22) Second movement coda (measures 59, 60) Third movement after the first double bar (measure 15)

Op. 2, no. 2 • Movement openings use tonic or dominant arpeggios and scale fragments. First movement: upbeat, measures 1–​10, etc. Thirrd movement: upbeat, measures 1–​8, etc. Fourth movement: measures 1–​4, etc. • The opening phrases of the third and fourth movements both rise to e′′′.

Op. 2, no. 3 • Movement openings start on the tonic and in the first phrase move to the dominant or dominant preparation. First movement: measures 1–​3; second phrase starts in the dominant Second movement: measure 1 Third movement: upbeat, measures 1–​8; second phrase starts in the dominant Fourth movement: upbeat, measures 1–​4; second phrase starts in the dominant • There are written-​out cadenzas in the first and fourth movements.

Op. 7 • The first and second movements open with a motive with a long-​short rhythm. • In the first movement, measures 5–​6 present a figure consisting of repeated descending half-​steps. In the fourth movement this figure appears on the downbeat of measure 1, elongated but at the same pitch. • The first and fourth movements open with a L.H. repeated-​note accompaniment.

Op. 10, no. 2 • In the first movement, measures 5–​8 present a rising line that stops on the notes F, A, and C; the fourth movement opening theme presents the same rising pitches in repeated notes.

Op. 10, no. 3 • The first movement’s opening theme presents four descending scalar notes that are used as the basis for the movement’s second theme.

 

86

Considerations

• The first and fourth movements open with non-​tonic harmony; both delay clear cadences to the home key for several measures, measures 15–​16 in the first movement and 8–​9 in the fourth. • The first and fourth movements present opening motifs that close with a fermata on the dominant (A) at the same pitch. • The first and fourth movements present developmental sections that follow the same harmonic scheme of B♭ major, g minor, and E♭ major, in the first movement development (measures 133–​60) and in the fourth movement in the second departure (measures 33–​45). • The first and second movements open with the same two melodic notes at the same pitch.

Op. 13 • The first and second movements, although in different keys, open with the same melodic note at the same pitch (c′), and the opening phrase rises to the same e♭′, which is held and resolves downward. The third movement’s opening phrase might be regarded as a variation of the opening idea of the first movement, the upbeat passing through the notes c″ and d″ to the e♭″ on the first downbeat and moving back down to c″ at the end of the phrase. • The closing section of the first movement’s exposition presents syncopation (measures 89–​90) that is picked up by the third movement’s second theme (measures 25 and 31), both initially in the key of E♭. • The first movement’s second theme is in the minor mode of the traditional relative major (measures 51–​63); the third movement’s second theme moves fleetingly through the same key (measures 31–​34), and both emphasize the lowered third with sforzandi (measures 53–​54, etc., and 33–​34 respectively).

Op. 14, no. 1 • The first and third movements open with a melodic line that begins on the 5th step of the scale and moves upward. • The first and third movements present second themes that open with monophonic lines leading to cadences. • The first, second, and third movements have middle sections firmly rooted in contrasting keys: the first movement development in a minor and C major at measures 65–75 (66–76), the second movement trio in C major, the third movement C section of the rondo in G major and e minor.

 

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Op. 14, no. 2 • The first and third movements open with upbeats; both opening phrases lead to downbeat goals on a pair of changing tones (measure 1 in the first movement, measures 3–​4 in the third). This connection is tenuous, more obvious aurally than visually

Op. 22 • The first, second, third, and fourth movements present melodic phrases that move toward retardations or appoggiatura-​like resolutions (measure 6 in the first movement; measures 2, 3, 5, 8, and 12 in the second; measures 4, 8, 12, 16, etc., in the third; and measures 2, 4, and 8 etc. in the fourth).

Op. 26 • The first, second, third, and fourth movements open with themes that end their first phrases on the dominant. In the first and third movements, the second phrase also ends on the dominant; in the second and fourth, the second phrase moves back to the tonic. • The first and fourth movements give passing prominence to the secondary dominant seventh of the supertonic (F7):  in the first movement the opening of the middle section of the theme (upbeat to measure 17), in the fourth movement the opening broken chord used as the upbeat to measure 1. Note also that the second movement opens with an f minor triad acting as the supertonic of the dominant, a different inflection of mode, but still a sonority based on F. • The first and third movements are connected through the use of A♭ minor (the third variation in the first movement and the key of the third); in both cases the melodic line is relatively static, using a repeated note figure.

Op. 27, no. 1 • The first, third, and fourth movements all open with phrases that place notes of the tonic triad on strong beats, the first movement presenting 5 to 3, the third 3 (with ornamental passing tones) to 1 [in A♭], and the fourth an upbeat on 5, to 1 to 5 (with passing submediant) to 3 (with ornamental passing tones). • The first and fourth movements present similar scale patterns as an answer to opening motives (in the first movement the L.H.  of measures 1–​4 and in the fourth measures 3–​4, 7–​8).

 

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Considerations

• The allegro section of the first movement opens with a C major arpeggio-​like figure that rises to g′′. The second movement opens with a c minor arpeggio that rises to the same pitch. • There is an obvious cyclic return of the third movement theme at the end of the fourth movement.

Op. 27, no. 2

• The first and third movements are both based on a broken c♯ minor triad. Both culminate on the fifth of the scale, G♯, the first movement using that note as the opening note of the first theme, the third-​movement arpeggios rising to chords with that note on top Although the second movement in D♭ major opens with a phrase in the dominant, it, too, culminates on the fifth of the A♭ major scale. • The upbeat to measures 16–​19 in the first movement and measures 29–​32 in the third movement have the same melodic outline. • The development sections of the first and third movements both center around f♯ minor.

Op. 28 • The first and fourth movements both open with repeated tonic notes in the bass, although the latter incorporates a rising line as well. Both movements begin with melodies that start on the fifth degree of the scale and move down the scale to the sixth degree of the scale before going their separate ways (measures 1–​6 and 1–​4 respectively). Related patterns can be noted in the opening of the second movement, which, although it starts on the tonic, leaps to the fifth and moves down the scale (measures 1–​2), as well as the third movement trio (measures 71–​74).

Op. 31, no. 1 • The opening phrases of the first, second, and third movements all use the note g′ as their melodic goal.

Op. 31, no. 2 • The first and second movements both open with slow arpeggiated chords. The rising motive in measures 1 and 2 of the first movement, preceded by the chord, subtly resemble the chord and dotted rhythm figure of measures 1 and 2 of the second movement. The third movement, moreover, opens with written-​out arpeggiation of the tonic in the left hand.

 

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Op. 31, no. 3 • The first and fourth movements both start by moving to a tonic six-​four chord (measure 6 and measure 4 respectively) and then to a tonic chord in root position (measures 8 and 6 respectively).

Op. 53 • The opening phrase of the first movement moves from the note E up to G; the opening phrase of the rondo starts on G and returns to E. • Measures 22–​23 of the opening movement present an augmented sixth harmony built on C that resolves to B major, a distinctive progression. When it is transposed into home key in the recapitulation it is built on F and resolves to E major (measures 185–​86). The second movement opens with the same progression on the same pitches as those of the recapitulation (in a lower register).

Op. 54 • Although the connection is tenuous, the rising line in F of the opening of the first movement (measures 1–​4) is reflected in the rising line of the same key of the second movement (measures 1–​8).

Op. 57 • The openings of the first and third movements are both built on the contrast between the home key (f minor) and the key a half-​step above (G♭ major). • The first and third movements are in sonata-​allegro form, both using extended passages built on the VII7 at the re-​transition to the recapitulation. This harmony also is introduced at the end of the second movement, acting as a link to the third movement.

Op. 78 • The striking harmony introduced in measures 31–​32 of the first movement is used as the main theme figure of the second movement (measures 1–​2). • The melodic outline of the main theme in measures 5–​6 of the first movement is similar to that of the figuration in measures 12–​13 of the second movement.

Op. 79 • The opening motive of the first and second movements rises from the tonic to the third of their respective keys to the fifth (measures 1–​2 and 1 respectively).

 

90

Considerations

The third movement outlines the tonic, third, and fifth degrees in its opening figure but changes the order (measures 1–​2).

Op. 81a • The Lebewohl motive that opens the first movement is echoed in the main theme of the third movement (measures 11–​12, etc.). • The first and second movements are linked by the melodic contours of measures 3–​4 and 1–​3 respectively, both lines using a rising dotted rhythmic figure that goes up to e♭″. • The first and third movements both use a written-​out trill in the right hand under a slower-​moving soprano melody as second-​theme material in a sonata-​ allegro form, measures 50–​57 and 53–​56, etc., respectively.

Op. 90 • Connections in this work are subtle, perhaps even tenuous. The first and second movements both open with upbeats leading to a downbeat on the third of the scale. The short-​long rhythmic pattern that opens the sonata is used in transitions to the second themes in both movements (upbeat to measures 1–​1, upbeat to 25–​26, etc., in the first and the upbest to measures 32–​33. etc., in the second). Both movements present descending lines outlined in octaves, as the second theme in a sonata-​allegro form in the first movement (measures 55–​58) and as a closing theme in a sonata-​rondo pattern in the second (measures 60–​63).

Op. 101 • The cyclic return of the opening measures of the first movement to introduce the final movement foreshadows the frequent use of this technique throughout the nineteenth century. • The first theme of the first movement and the main theme of the fourth movement present first phrases that end on the note B (measures 1–​2 and 33–​34 respectively). • The opening theme of the first movement skips up an octave from a′ to a′′ to introduce its second phrase, then moves down the scale step-​wise (upbeat to measures 3–​4). The second part of the fugue theme of the fourth movement has a similar pattern, albeit in a different range measures 127–​130 (128–​31). • The figure presented as a second idea in the first movement (upbeat to measure 17–​17)  forecasts the shape of the opening theme of the fourth movement (measures 33–​34).

 

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Op. 106 • Focus on the falling third in the openings of the first, second, and third movements (measures 2, 1, and 2 respectively). • The opening of the first movement (upbeat to measure 1 and measure 1) and the fourth movement fugue subject (L.H. measure 16) share a leap of more than an octave from the root to the third of the key. • There is similarity in the scalar passage work in the second theme area of the first movement (measures 47–​50, etc.) and in the second half of the fugue subject in the fourth movement (measures 17–​25).

Op. 109 • The first, second, and third movements open with a rising or falling third (upbeat to measure 1, measure 1, and measure 1 respectively).

Op. 110 • The melodic outline of the opening of the first movement (measures 1–​4) forecasts the fugue subject (upbeat to measure 27–​29, counting from the Adagio ma non troppo).

Op. 111 • The dotted rhythm of the introduction (upbeat to measure 1, etc.) foreshadows the rhythmic figure of the main theme of the second movement (upbeat to measure 1, etc.).

 

 

PA RT   I I

THE SONATAS

 

 

The Opus 2 Set

Biographical Snapshot Beethoven was in Vienna studying with Haydn when he composed this early work. During Haydn’s second trip to London in 1794, Beethoven studied counterpoint with Johann Georg Albrechtsberger (1736–​1809). The young composer had his Vienna debut on March 29, 1795, in which he most likely played his first piano concerto, op. 15. In 1796 Prince Karl Lichnowsky (1761–​1814) arranged an extended tour for Beethoven that lasted from February through early July and included visits to Prague, Dresden, Leipzig, and Berlin.

Factual Information Opus 2 was composed in 1795. The order in which the three sonatas were written, however, is undetermined. The work was published in 1796 by Artaria, an important Viennese publisher who had published works of Mozart and Haydn. No autographs are known to exist, but there are some sketches for the second sonata. The work is dedicated to Haydn, but Beethoven did not acknowledge Haydn as his teacher in the dedication, a gesture expected during the period.

Observations Structure

The composer added an extra movement to the typical three-​ movement keyboard sonata, a “dance” movement usually reserved for chamber or orchestral works. By doing so, Beethoven elevated the importance of the keyboard sonata. Internal sections of movements are extended in the second and third sonatas of the set. Thematic development is initiated at any point, not being confined to development sections. 95

 

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Codas are expanded and begin to assume developmental qualities in the second and third sonatas of the set. Harmonic Features

Key relationships frequently challenge structural expectations.

Performance Indications

For the period, the composer indicated an unusual number of dynamic contrasts, often extreme, and sforzandi or other accents, often on weak beats.

No. 1 Observations Nickname

This sonata is sometimes called the “Little Appassionata,” probably because it is in the same key as the op. 57.

Possible Connections between Movements

The first and second movements open with an upbeat on the dominant tone, the first movement arpeggio rising to the third of the scale, the second movement going immediately to the third. Both movements’ lines move from the third to the tonic. The third movement main theme uses a falling third at its downbeat. The first and fourth movements open with motifs that end on the tonic, at the same pitch in the same register. The flat sixth degree of the scale in major keys appears frequently: first movement exposition, second theme (measures 20, 22, etc.); second movement exposition, second theme (measures 23, 24) and coda (measures 59 and 60); third movement after the first double bar (measures 15).

First movement:  f minor—​Allegro—​4/​4 (alla breve)—​Sonata-​Allegro—​repeat both sections Exposition Measure(s) Upbeat to 1–​2

The opening phrase is a series of ascending notes on the tonic triad. A unison or octave opening for a movement is a gesture made famous by orchestral composers at the electoral court of Mannheim from about 1740 to 1778. Such gestures are labeled “Mannhiem openings,” and in a configuration such as this, a “Mannheim rocket.” Other examples of the

 

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“rocket” are the opening of op. 10, no. 1, and Mozart’s sonata K. 457. Beethoven also used tonic triad notes as the opening of op. 57, inviting speculation as to whether the key of f minor suggested similar ideas. The upbeat has no staccato mark, nor is there one leading to measure 49. Conversely, upbeats at measures 8 and 108 show staccato marks. Opinions differ as to whether this is an intended pattern or evidence of typesetter’s errors. 2

Slurring of the eighth-​note triplet extends to the quarter note on the third beat and is marked staccato. Compare this notation with that used in measure 1 of op. 10, no. 2, where the slur is detached from the quarter note on the downbeat of measure 2. These notational differences suggest different musical concepts, namely, whether the idea shapes away from the final note, as in this sonata, or toward it, as in the later work.

Upbeat to 1–​7

The piano opening is somewhat unusual, but had been used by both Haydn (HOB. XVI/​42 and 50) and Mozart (K. 283 and 570). More striking is the rapidly developing dynamic contrast from piano to fortissimo with sforzandi in measures 5 and 6.

Upbeat to 21–​25 The second theme might be viewed as a free inversion of the first theme. A somewhat similar relationship exists between the first and second themes of the first movement of the op. 57. The expected key in sonata-​allegro form is A♭ (the relative major), but the repeated sforzazndi on the flat six as part of a dominant ninth descending arpeggio suggest the parallel minor. Note that the slurring patterns enhance the sforzandi. In the second and third sonatas of this set, the composer extends this concept to full-​blown arrival of the parallel minor of the expected key. 26–​41 41–48

The extension of the second theme rises to a climax, punctuated by syncopated L.H. sforzandi. The flat three in A♭ is repeatedly used, again suggesting the parallel minor.

 

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Development Measure(s)

49–​73

62 73–​79 95–​100

Opening in A♭ major, the composer develops both first and second themes in order, a procedure used periodically throughout the sonatas: opp. 14, no. 2; 49, nos. 1 and 2; 53; 57; and the last movement of op. 27, no. 2. The penultimate R.H. eighth note is d♭ in the first edition, d♮ in the second edition (Simrock, Bonn, 1798). Note the unusual patterns of sforzandi in different voice levels.

The re-​transition presents the triplet fragment of the opening theme with a crescendo to create tension in anticipation of the recapitulation, a concept expanded in some later sonatas, notable examples being the opp. 53 and 57.

Recapitulation Measure(s)

101–​8

111–​19 Upbeat to 120–​40

The rhythmic and dynamic differences between this statement and that of the exposition enhance the drama of the return. The “turnaround” touches on the key of b♭ minor. The second theme is in the tonic minor.

132–​39

Small changes from measures 33–​41, both in intensity of dynamics and placements of dynamic contrasts, create new tension for this climactic passage.

146–​52

The short coda presents syncopated, staccato chords for dramatic effect.

Second movement:  F major—​Adagio—​3/​4—​Sonata-​Allegro (without development)—​no repeats Structure

The sonata-​allegro structure without development is sometimes termed “truncated” sonata-​allegro. The structure also occurs in the second movements of op. 10, no. 1; op. 31, no. 2; and op. 81a (with a slight modification). In this movement the end of the exposition is at measure 31; the recapitulation begins at measure 32.

 

The O p u s  2  Se t

Measure(s) 2

99

The expressive, falling interval of a second is introduced here at the closing of the first phrase of a song-​like theme. It is ubiquitous throughout the movement, appearing in the exposition in measures 3, 4, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14, 18, 20, 22, 23, 24, 28, and 30. Its use in the left hand in measures 23 and 24 recalls the flat six, a connection to the first movement.

Upbeat to The d minor transition does not appear in the 17–​22 recapitulation. 32–​47

The first theme in the recapitulation is presented with more elaborate lyricism in both the melodic line and the accompaniment, twice moving in polyrhythmic patterns.

58–​61

The short coda recalls the flat six in the home key.

Third movement: f minor—​Allegretto—​3/​4—​Minuet and Trio da capo |:A:|:B:| |:C:|:D:||A|B| Measures

11, 13, 19, 21

In the first edition, the grace note is written with one flag on its stem, suggesting an eighth note value. Some editors believe it should be played as a sixteenth note to distinguish the figure from those in measures 22 and 23.

42 and 67

The final eighth note in measure 67 is attended by a natural sign, making it different from the one in measure 42. Some editors believe the same note should be played for both measures, adopting one or the other.

59–​62

The fingering for the R.H. double notes in the first edition is presumably Beethoven’s. Starting after the second beat in measure 59, it is 3–​1, 4–​1, 5–​2; then in measure 60, it is 5–​1, 4–​2, 5–​1, 4–​2, 5–​1, 5–​1; in 61, it is 5–​2, 5–​1, 4–​2, 5–​1, 4–​2, 3–​1; and in 62, it is 4–​2, 5–​1, 4–​2, 3–​1, 4–​2, 5–​1.

Fourth movement:  f minor—​Prestissimo—​4/​4 (alla breve)—​Sonata-​Allegro—​ repeat both sections Structure

This is the only movement in the piano sonatas cast in sonata-​ allegro form but substituting a completely new theme with its own AABB structure for the development.

Performance Indication

The prestissimo alla breve suggests a tempo that was undoubtedly intended to impress Viennese audiences with a whirlwind of virtuosity. Editorial suggestions for metronome settings have ranged from Carl Czerny’s 104 to Artur Schnabel’s 116 for the half note.

 

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Exposition Measures

Development (middle section) Measures

1–​4 and 13–​19

Note the dramatic contrasting dynamics on the chords that comprise the head of the main theme: piano/​forte and later piano/​fortissimo.

22–​50

A second theme enters in the dominant minor (c), picking up the triplet figuration from the accompaniment pattern of the first theme, at points using polyrhythmic patterns. A second section retains the triplets as an accompaniment in the left hand to longer, lyrical phrases in the right hand . The use of the dominant minor for the second theme in a dramatic sonata-​allegro last movement also occurs in the op. 27, no. 2 op. 31, no. 2, and the op. 57, all sonatas in minor keys.

50–​58

The opening motive is used to close the exposition, a procedure also used in the last movement of the op. 57.

59–​109 The middle section comprises a lyrical theme in A♭ (61–​111) major with a two-​part structure. The first part, of ten measures, and the second part, of sixteen measures, are each repeated, but the repeats are written out to allow for variation in linear detail and register. 109–​38 A new section introduces the first-​theme motive (111–​40) in juxtaposition with material related to the middle theme. Although the section acts as a re-​transition to the recapitulation, it contains elements of development.

Recapitulation Measures

138–​42 (140–​4 4)

Note the change of presenting the first-theme chords without dynamic contrasts.

189–​96 (191–​98)

The movement closes with a short extension of the closing section chords and an abrupt descending tonic arpeggio, the final gesture possibly being related to the ascending arpeggio that opened the first movement.

 

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No. 2 Observations Structure

The added third movement, the “dance movement,” is changed from minuet and trio to scherzo. The tempo is faster and the spirit more playful, but the structure and time signature remain the same. Movements tend to lengthen, especially the first movement, where the exposition incorporates multiple ideas and is developmental. Longer codas in the second and fourth movements introduce modulation away from the home key and the return of earlier thematic material.

Harmonic Features

Bolder harmonic relationships are presented. The second theme in the exposition of the first movement arrives in e minor, the parallel minor of the expected dominant major. In the op. 2, no. 1, the composer merely teased the listener with accidentals suggesting the parallel minor of the expected key, but here he goes all the way. Introduction of unexpected keys occurs in the codas to the 2nd and 4th movements.

Possible Connections between Movements

Three movements open with tonic or dominant arpeggios and scale fragments: first movement, upbeat to measures 1–​10, etc.; third movement, upbeat to measures 1–​8, etc.; fourth movement, measures 1–​4, etc., and also 100, 104, 112 (101, 105, 113). The third and fourth movement opening phrases rise to the same e′′'.

First movement:  A  major—​Allegro vivace—​2/​4—​Sonata-​Allegro—​repeat both sections Exposition The exposition is expanded by introducing three ideas in the first-​theme area, a modulatory second theme in the dominant minor, and then an extended section in the expected dominant major that references first-​theme material. Measure(s) Upbeat to 1–​8; The opening segment of the first theme is a upbeat to 21–​22 Mannheim opening, presenting figuration in octaves. (See the exposition of the first movement of op. 2, no. 1, for comments on the Mannheim opening.)

 

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Upbeat to 9–​20; The second segment of the first theme is a rising upbeat to 23–​32 scale figure in staccato eighth notes with a closing cadence written with voice levels. Its repetition exhibits invertible counterpoint. 32–​58

The third segment of the first theme opens with rising sixteenth-​note triplets, posing a technical challenge. The composer frequently placed technical challenges near the beginnings of sonatas: the double thirds in op. 2, no. 3 (measures 1–​3); the broken sixths in op.10, no. 3 (upbeat to measures 11–​15); the rapid two-​note slurs in op. 31, no. 2 (upbeat to measures 3–​18); the broken arpeggio in op. 57 (measures 14–​15); and the double notes in op. 81a (measures 29–​33). This segment opens in the tonic but modulates to the dominant of E major, the expected key of the second theme area. The introduction of the lowered sixth (C♮) at measure 49 prepares the unexpected second-​theme key of e minor.

58–​84

Entering in e minor, the second theme is developmental, rising through G major, B♭ major, and a series of diminished seventh sonorities to climax at measure 76 with the return of the first segment of the first theme, now outlining a diminished seventh harmony that acts as a VII7 resolving to E major.

84–​117

An extension of the second theme area in the expected key of E major opens with broken octave figuration. The third segment of the opening theme returns at measure 92 and is extended to close the exposition.

84–​87

Fingering for the R.H. triplet figures in measures 84 and 85 is shown in the first edition as 1-​5-​1, 2-​5-​1, 2-​5-​2, 1-​5-​1, 2-​5-​1, 2-​5-​2, 1-​5-​1, and in 88 and 89 as 1-​5-​1, 2-​5-​2, 1-​5-​1, 2-​5-​1, 2-​5-​2, 1-​5-​1, 2-​5-​1. This fingering was possible with the light action and shallow key-​dip of Viennese pianos, but most performers will find it impractical on today’s instruments and instead use both hands to play the figuration.

 

The O p u s  2  Se t

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Development Measure(s) 114–​22 (118–​26)

There is a dispute over the rest indicated at measure 117 (121). The first edition shows the figure “2” at the measure of rest. Having two measures of rest interrupts the four-​measure grouping, so some editors believe that one measure of rest is correct and thus indicate only one. (This analysis assumes two measures of rest, and the ensuing measure count reflects that assumption.)

Upbeat to 123–​61 (127–​65)

The first segment of the first theme opens in C major and moves through progressions in A♭ major and f minor, coming to rest with a chord marked with a fermata on the dominant of f minor. Note the articulation pattern of staccato and non-​staccato markings in this section. For example, compare the downbeats of measures 123 (127) and 125 (129) with those of measures 124 (128), 126 (130), and 131 (135).

Upbeat to 162–​225 (166–​229)

Opening in F major, the second segment of the first theme serves for the remainder of the development section, being fragmented at the upbeat to measure 182 (186), a point at which the grace notes and melodic notes require rapid skips of the interval of a tenth, a technical challenge.

204 and 208 (208 and 212)

In the first edition the upper voice in the right hand of the earlier measure shows all four eighth notes as g♯′, but the later measure presents the four notes as g♯′, a′, b’, and g♯′. Some editors believe that the measures should match; others praise the variation.

Recapitulation Measure(s)

Upbeat to 226–​337 All material from the exposition is presented (230–​341) in order, the second theme area entering in the parallel minor of the tonic at measure 278 (282) and evolving to the home key in measure 304 (308). The onset of the recapitulation is marked forte, in contrast to the exposition’s piano.

 

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242–​51 (246–​55)

A short but interesting “turnaround” states a phrase in E major in measures 242–​4 4 (246–248), then lowers it a whole step to D major in measures 245–​48 (249–​252), a progression used later and more boldly in the openings of the op. 31 no. 1, and the op. 53. There is no coda.

Second movement: D major—​Largo appassionato—​3/​4—​ABACABA, coda(s) Concept

This is the first slow movement with the expressive goal of creating a contemplative mood, rather than that of presenting flowing singing melodies. Later examples of this type of slow movement occur in the op. 2, no. 3; 7; 10, nos. 1 and 3; 31, no. 2; 53; 81a, 101, 106; 109 (variations); 110 (arioso); and 111 (variations).

Measure(s) 1–​8

The texture of the main theme suggests that of a string quartet, the lowermost part being written in staccato sixteenth notes, imitating pizzicato. Other examples of this texture in the piano sonatas occur in opp. 7, second movement. middle section; 28, second movement, opening theme; and 31, no. 3, second movement, opening theme.

23–​28 The harmonic progression to the Neapolitan sixth at measure 26 is coloristic and striking. A parallel of harmonic relationships exists between this passage and progressions in the third movement of the op. 106 (measures 14–​15, 22–​23, etc.). The progressions in both sonatas move from f♯ minor to the Neapolitan sixth (first inversion of G major). 50–​57 A coda is introduced with the typical purpose of bringing the movement to a quiet close. 58–​67 A second coda enters fortissimo in the unexpected parallel minor (d), moving through B♭ major (measures 61–​63) before resolving to the home key. This added section is the first example in the piano sonatas of the impulse to extend the coda using developmental techniques. This idea grows throughout the sonatas periodically and reaches its apex in such codas as those that attend the first movements of the op. 53 and op. 57 68–​80 A variation of the main theme returns in the home key, bringing the movement to a quiet close.

 

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Third movement: A major—​Allegretto—​3/​4—​Scherzo and Trio da capo |:A:|:B:| |:C:|:D:||A|B| Structure

Measure(s)

The concept of the lively, light-​hearted scherzo is wedded with the traditional minuet and trio structure and time signature for the first time in the sonatas. Other examples of this union in the sonatas are opp. 2, no. 3; 26; 28; and 106. Both the scherzo and trio sections present full returns of their opening eight-​measure segments. The trio is in a minor. Upbeats to 9, 10, and 11

L H. fingering appears in the first edition on the first and third sixteenth notes as 3-​1, an awkward pattern on today’s piano actions.

61–​66

The first edition shows sforzandi on the downbeats of measures 64 and 65. Many editors believe the marking on 65 to be an error and move it to measure 66, thus preserving a pattern of sforzandi on alternate measures in the passage.

Fourth movement: A major—​Grazioso—​4/​4—​Rondo: ABACABA, coda Structure

This is the first appearance in the sonatas of a rondo type that is related to sonata-​allegro form in that the first B section is in the dominant and the second is in the tonic. This structure appears throughout the keyboard sonatas with various alterations that move it even closer to the sonata-​allegro concept, such as including development in the C section or deleting the final return of A. Examples of its use in the sonatas are opp. 2, nos. 2 and 3; 7; 13; 14, no. 1; 22; 26; 27, no. 1; 28; 31, no. 1; 53; 79; and 90. 57–​99 (100)

The C section of this rondo is cast in two-​part form, the first part marked to be repeated and the second with the repeat written out in order to effect dynamic and articulation changes, as well as the transition back to the A section. The second section recapitulates much of the first section at its close.

 

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57, etc.

The rhythm throughout the C section presents triplet eighth notes in one hand with a dotted eighth followed by a sixteenth note in the other. By the date of this sonata, the earlier Baroque practice of aligning the sixteenth note with the third note of the triplet had gradually eroded in favor of separating the sixteenth note from the triplet. Treatises by J. J. Quantz (1752), M. Agricola (1765), and D. G. Türk (1789) recommend separation.

158–​87 (159–​88)

The coda mirrors the procedure used at the end of the second movement. Here the A theme veers off into B♭ major, and C section material returns. With the return to the home key, a portion of the A theme is restated and unwinds.

No. 3 Observations Structure

The added third movement retains the designation “scherzo,” an innovation that appeared in the preceding sonata, the op. 2, no. 2. The structure and time signature of the minuet and trio are still used, but the spirit of the work is lighter and the tempo faster. Movements continue to expand. The first movement presents two second themes in the exposition followed by material introduced earlier, as well as a closing theme. The first and fourth movements have codas that are modeled after cadenzas that might typically appear in a concerto for piano and orchestra, these being the only examples of this device in the keyboard sonatas.

Harmonic Features

The exposition of the first movement presents a second theme in the dominant minor (g minor) and then another second theme in the dominant major. The use of the mediant key (E major) for the second movement is unusual for the period. This is the only time this relationship occurs between first and second movements in the Beethoven keyboard sonatas. Note, however, that the exact same key relationship occurs between the first and second themes of the first movement of the op. 53, and a parallel relationship between first and second themes of the first movement of the op. 31, no. 1.

 

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Possible Connections All four movements start on the tonic and move to either between Movements the dominant or dominant preparation in the first phrase. First movement: C major—​Allegro con brio—​4/​4—​Sonata-​Allegro, coda—​repeat exposition Exposition Measure(s)

1–​3

The double thirds are an example of the composer’s penchant for placing technical challenges near the openings of sonatas. Other examples are opp. 2, no. 2 (rapid scales, measures 32–​38); 10, no. 3 (broken sixths, upbeat to measures 11–​15); 31, no. 2 (rapid two-​note slurs, upbeat to measures 3–​18); 57 (broken arpeggio, measures 14–​15); and 81a (double notes, measures 29–​33). Note the articulation of the double thirds and their relationship to the ensuing eighth notes. The only other Beethoven piano sonata in C major, the op. 53, opens with the same chord in a different register.

13–​20

A second segment of the first theme, still in the home key, features broken chords and octaves in sixteenth notes.

27–​6 0

The first segment of the second-​theme area announces a theme in g minor, the parallel minor to the expected dominant major. This theme modulates through d minor, a minor, and g minor and arrives at D major, the last acting as the dominant for the second segment. A new theme in the expected G major appears at measure 47.

60

Note that the L.H. chord spans the interval of a tenth. Beethoven calls for this reach again in measure 136, as well as several times in the third movement of the op. 106 (measures 170, 171, 184–​87). Although the physical distance of an octave span differed on period pianos, it was often less than today’s 164–​65 mm., making such intervals easier to reach. A shallower key-​dip on period pianos also helped.

61–​77

The second segment of the first theme is used to lengthen the exposition, at one point being extended to octaves in alternate hands in syncopation (measures 69–​72), a gesture to be used more extensively in the development section. This segment closes in the expected dominant key of G major.

 

The Sonata s

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Upbeat to The first part of the closing section presents a series of 78–​9 0 cadences decorated with a trill. The grace note preceding the trill has led to differences of opinion as to the proper execution of the figure. (See Chapter 3, pp. 26–27.) Broken octaves derived from the second segment of the first theme close the exposition.

Development Measure(s)

Upbeat to 91–​96 (92–​97)

The development opens with repetition of the trill-​decorated cadences used at the close of the exposition. The technique of linking exposition with the development section by using figurations heard near the end of the exposition is one the composer uses frequently in the sonatas. To a varying degree it occurs in the first movements of opp. 10, nos. 2 and 3; 14, no. 1; 22; 31, no. 1; 49, no. 1; 53; 90; 106; and 111.

97–​108 (98–​109)

Arpeggios derived from the second segment of the opening theme pass through diminished seventh sonorities, as well as f minor and f♯ minor.

109–​38 (110–​39)

Recapitulation

Measure(s)

The opening theme of the exposition returns and is extended to be combined with material derived from the octaves of the second-​theme area of the exposition (measures 69–​72), the syncopation now being underscored with sforzandi. Fragmentation of the opening figuration leads to the recapitulation.

All events of the exposition are presented in the recapitulation in order, retaining the home key for the second-​theme area. 147–​54 The “turnaround” uses the aforementioned syncopated (148–​55) octave figuration, passing through F major and G major, the latter acting as the dominant in the home key. 218–​32 A surprising A♭ major chord, followed by descending (219–​33) arpeggio-​like figuration, ushers in a series of diminished-​seventh sonorities that settle on a tonic six-​ four chord. There follows a cadenza, written in small-​ note notation.

 

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233–​57 In a rapid, brilliant unfolding, the opening motif is (234–​58) followed by both the syncopated octave material and the broken octaves derived from the second segment of the first theme. Second movement: E major—​Adagio—​2/​4—​ABABA, coda—​no repeats Concept

As with the slow movement of the preceding sonata of this set, this movement is contemplative, joining others of this type in the keyboard sonatas: opp. 7; 10, nos. 1 and 3; 31, no. 2; 53; 81a; 101; 106; 109 (variations); 110 (arioso); and 111 (variations).

Structure

The two B sections unfold differently, the first opening in e minor, the second in C major. The final statement of A presents the material with figural variations and in different registers of the keyboard.

Measure(s) 1–​10

The first theme comprises motivic fragments interspersed with rests. Syncopated upbeats attend measures 7 and 9. The opening fragment moves from the tonic to the dominant, reflecting the opening of the first movement.

11–​42 A figure in thirty-​second notes played by the right hand alternates with bass octaves and melodic fragments played by the left hand crossing over the right. The passage opens in e minor and moves through G major (measure 13) and a minor (measure 29). 53–​66 An unexpected statement of the A motive in C major marked fortissimo ushers in a much shorter return to the B section, which opens in C but moves to E major (measure 59). 77–​82 A short coda is based on the opening motive. Third movement:  C major—​Allegro—​3/​4—​Scherzo and Trio da capo, coda |:A:|:B:||:C:|D||A|B|coda| Structure

As in the second sonata of this set, the concept of the lively, light-​hearted scherzo is wedded with the traditional minuet and trio structure and time signature. Other examples of this union in the sonatas are opp. 26, 28, and 106. In this movement both the scherzo and trio sections present full returns of their opening segments. The trio is in a minor, the repeat of the second half being written out in order to segue into the da capo.

 

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110

Measure(s) Upbeat The three eighth notes that comprise the upbeat to measure to 1 1 are slurred together, but not to the quarter note on the downbeat of the first measure. This articulation is consistent throughout the movement. Editors have differed with regard to its execution, some extending the slur over the bar line to the quarter note, others adding an accent on the quarter note so that it does not sound like the end of a phrase. Upbeat The first phrase ends on the dominant, subtly reflecting the to 1–​8 motives of the first and second movements, both of which ended on the dominant. 55–​64 The return of the opening section is extended, this idea being used as the basis of the coda that is to be played after the da capo. Fourth movement: C major—​Allegro assai—​6/​8—​Rondo: ABACABA, coda—​no repeats Structure

Measure(s)

As in the preceding sonata of this set, the final movement is cast in a rondo that is related to sonata-​allegro form in that the first B section is in the dominant and the second is in the tonic. This structure appears throughout the keyboard sonatas with various alterations that move it even closer to the sonata-​allegro concept, such as including development in the C section or deleting the final return of A. Examples of its use in the sonatas are opp. 2, no. 2; 7; 13; 14, no. 1; 22; 26; 27, no. 1; 28; 31, no. 1; 53; 79; and 90. Upbeat to 1–​4

The first phrase of the opening theme ends with the secondary dominant of the dominant key, a gesture that is in keeping with the harmonic profiles of the preceding movements.

81–​102

A brief development of the main theme provides a transition to the C theme.

103–​80

An unusually long C section is built on a chorale-​like lyrical theme. Opening in F major, it is stated three times, the last statement moving through f minor, A♭ major, and c minor.

259–​96

The final statement of the A theme is presented as an integral part of the cadenza-​like coda, opening with a long trill in the right hand with almost immediate extended figuration (measures 269–​79).

 

The O p u s  2  Se t

269

Fingering is shown in the first edition, presumably from the composer: R.H. 5-​2, 4-​1, 5-​2, 4-​1, 5-​2, 4-​1. The L.H. shows 1, 3, 1, 3.

285–​96

The trills in this section imitate gestures often found near the ends of concerto cadenzas of this period, moving from single trills to double and triple trills before tapering off.

298–​312 The veering off into a foreign key (here A major) and perhaps slowing the tempo, as well as lowering the dynamic level before a final burst of energy in the home key, is a gesture Beethoven often used. Examples in the keyboard sonatas occur in the final moments of opp. 10, no. 1; 13; 27, nos. 1 and 2; 78; 81a; and 101.

111

 

 

Opus 7

Biographical Snapshot The young composer continued to work and perform in Vienna with increasing recognition. The first half of 1797 produced this work, the op. 49, no. 1, the serenade for string trio op. 8, and a few other short works. Very little is recorded concerning the second half of the year. It is probable that Beethoven suffered a period of illness, reported as typhus. It is believed that at about this time hearing loss in its early stages became evident to him.

Factual Information Published by Artaria (which published the op. 2 set) as a “grand” sonata in October 1797, this four-​movement work is dedicated to Countess Babette Keglevics (d.1813), who at the time was a young piano student of the composer. Some historians suggest a romantic attachment to the countess, but others dispute the claim in the absence of conclusive evidence. In addition to this sonata, Beethoven dedicated to her his first piano concerto, op. 15, as well as two sets of piano variations, op. 34 and WoO 73. In 1801 she married Prince Innocenzo d’Erba Odescalchi (1778–​1831).

Observations Structure

As in the op. 2 set, Beethoven continued to use the concept of a four-​ movement work, elevating the piano sonata to a position equal to that of a chamber or symphonic work. The first and fourth movements show continued interest in codas that temporarily veer away from the home key. The first movement exposition is extended with an unusual variety of material in the second theme area. The second movement is a contemplative one, a type introduced in the second movement

113

 

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114

of the op. 2, no. 2. The third movement is marked only with a tempo indication. The time signature and the structure remain that of the earlier minuet and trio except that the second half of the trio section is not repeated. Eschewing the earlier designations of minuet or scherzo is understandable in that the music is neither dance-​like nor jovial. The final movement follows the pattern of the rondo presented in the op. 2, no. 2, the C section being in two parts, each marked to be repeated. Harmonic Features

The use of the submediant as the key for the second movement is unusual for the period.

Possible Connections between Movements

The first and second movements open with a motive in a long-​short rhythm. Measures 5 and 6 of the first movement use the same notes in the same range as the upbeat and measure 1 of the fourth movement. The first and third movements open with a theme built on the notes of the tonic triad. The first and fourth movements both open with a repeated-​note L.H. accompaniment.

First movement: E-​flat major—​Allegro molto e con brio—​6/​8—​Sonata-​Allegro, coda, repeat exposition Exposition Measure(s) 1–​4

Two falling intervals of a third (third to root and fifth to third) over a repeated-​note accompaniment open this movement. Similar gestures are used for the openings of the three other sonatas in E♭ major: op. 27, no. 1 (fifth to third); op. 31, no. 3 (varied at measures 7–​8), and op. 81a (with a passing chord).

Upbeat to 5–​24

The second segment of the opening theme consists of diatonic passage work and scales.

25–​40

The transition presents the opening motive reharmonized, touching briefly on b♭ minor, the parallel minor of the expected dominant.

41–​59

The first segment of the second theme area, now in B♭ major, presents material that seems to be an outgrowth of figuration in measures 5 and 6, the figuration starting in measure 45 sounding like a free inversion of measure 6. The accompanying pattern features syncopation with off-​beats marked sforzando.

 

O p u s  7

115

Upbeat The second segment of the second theme area presents a to 60–​92 chorale-​like figure of four notes. It is varied with added triplets (upbeat to measures 68–​78), presented in C major (upbeat to measures 82–​89), and it modulates back to B♭ major. 93–​111

The third segment of the second theme opens with a rising tonic triad figure followed by chromatic scale in sixteenth notes. The figure is repeated in broken octaves (measures 101–​4), and the chromatic scale is extended (measures 105–​8).

111–​27

Sixteenth-​note figuration in the right hand based on broken chords creates a cadenza-​like passage over long sforzando pedal points on B♭ in the left hand.

127–​36

The syncopation first heard in measure 41 forms the basis for this closing section, where off-​beats are marked either sforzando or fortissimo.

Development

Measure(s)

The development section is surprisingly short compared to the extended exposition, the composer eschewing much of the material previously presented in the second theme area 137–​52

Both segments of the first theme are presented: the falling-​third motive and the scalar passage work, opening in c minor and ending in f minor.

153–​68

The syncopated figure as presented in the closing section of the exposition builds to a climax (measures 164–​165), moving from f minor to g minor. Dominant chords with a flat ninth and/​or diminished seventh chords marked sforzando heighten tension.

169–​88

The falling-​third motive alternates with melodic fragments in the rhythm introduced in measures 25–​32 of the exposition, now extended in a minor and d minor. The falling-​third motive appears unexpectedly in an inversion of the dominant of the home key as a transition to the recapitulation (measures 187–​188).

Recapitulation Measure(s)

All musical events of the exposition are repeated. 205–​14

The “turnaround” uses the second segment of the main theme, moving through A♭ major.

 

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215–​312 The events of the second theme area are repeated in the home key. 313–​50

A surprise return to the opening theme figure resolving to c minor ushers in the coda. The chorale-​like segment of the second theme returns, building to a climax (upbeat to measures 324–​38). The syncopated closing-​ section figure appears as presented in the development section, now with flat ninths over a dominant pedal, marked sforzando, then pianissimo. Chromatic octaves lead to dominant seventh harmony (measures 339–​50).

351–​62

The opening falling-​third motive appears briefly and builds to final authentic cadences marked fortissimo.

Second movement: C major—​Largo con gran espressione—​3/​4—​ABA, coda Structure

Each of the two A sections has an internal arrangement of aba, each b section in the key of the dominant (G major). The 24 measures of the first A section are divided into 8 + 6 + 10; the return is divided into 8 + 6 + 9.

Measure(s) 1–​24

Rests in the opening thematic idea create a prayerful atmosphere. The second statement contains two measures of dramatic fortissimo chords (measures 20–​21).

25–​36 A lyrical theme is supported by staccato sixteenth notes reminiscent of pizzicato strings. (See the second movement of op. 2. no. 2.) Four measures present the idea in A♭ major, and the following four measures present the idea in f minor, then four in D♭ major. 37–​50 An orchestra-​like transition opens with strong dynamic contrasts presented in wide ranges (measures 37–​41). The opening theme of the movement is in part stated in B​♭ major, its dotted rhythm figure extended with sforzandi (measures 45–​46). A descending monophonic line leads to the return (measures 47–​50).

51–​73 The return of the A section unfolds in its entirety except for the ending, which is altered to act as the transition to the coda. 74–​9 0 The coda opens with four measures drawn from the B section, played by the left hand. The dotted rhythm figure of the opening theme is presented as a melodic fragment, providing cadence-​like segments (measures 79–​86). The opening motive appears for a final time, now reharmonized and leading to the final cadence (measures 87–​9 0).

 

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Third movement:  E-​ flat major—​ Allegro—​ 3/​ 4—​ Minuet and trio da capo |:A:|:B:||:C:|D||A|B| Structure

Measure(s)

As noted earlier, this movement is modeled after the minuet and trio, but without designating it as either a minuet or a scherzo. Similar procedures occur in the opp. 10, no. 2 (2); 14, no. 1 (2); 27, nos. 1 (2) and 2 (2); 101 (2, duple meter, designated a march); and 110 (2, duple meter). In this movement the second half of the trio is without a repeat indication, undoubtedly because of the expressive transition that leads back to the opening section. 1–​24

Lyrical lines that outline the tonic triad are contrasted with a short two-​beat motive consisting of two eighth notes on the downbeat followed by a quarter. The section ends in the dominant.

25–​95

A much longer second section opens with diminished seventh harmony and features an excursion into the parallel minor at measure 51. The two-​beat motive is extended and shifts its rhythmic emphasis so that the quarter note falls on the downbeat.

Upbeat to 96–​111 (97–​112)

The key signature is changed to that of the parallel minor. Triple eighth notes form a perpetual motion texture that is halted at the cadence on dominant harmony. Opening in the dominant minor (b♭), this section returns to the tonic, but builds to a climax at measure 138 (139). An expressive lyrical phrase enters over the triplet figure to form a transition back to the main body of the movement at the upbeat to measures 140–​49 (141–​50).

Upbeat to 112–​49 (113–​50)

Fourth movement:  E-​ flat major—​ Rondo:  Poco allegretto e grazioso—​ 2/​ 4—​ABACABA, coda Structure

Measure(s)

The two B sections are in the tonic and dominant respectively. The C section is cast in two-​part form, each part marked to be repeated. Upbeat to 1–​16

A lyrical theme features two-​note appoggiatura-​like falling seconds on downbeats. Divided into four sets of four measures, the third set varies the thematic idea and the fourth presents it in octaves.

 

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Upbeat to 17–​50

The transition to the dominant develops the two-​note motive (measures 17–​24). Two second-​theme ideas follow, the first transforming the two-​note slur into staccato thirds preceded by an ornamental turn figure (upbeat to measures 26–​31), the second restoring the slur, but adding a trill figure and scalar passage work (measures 36–​49).

64–​93 (96)

The two-​part C section opens in c minor and is comprised of staccato chords and continuous sixteenth-​note figuration. Note the repeated sforzandi on weak beats. The second part opens on the dominant of f minor, moves to that key, and then returns to restate the c minor measures of the first part with an altered harmonic progression.

Upbeat to 94–​154 (97–​157)

The return of the opening ABA features slight variations of A in each statement and a B section that remains in the tonic.

155–​83 (158–​86)

An abrupt modulation to B major is made by raising a B♭ octave to B♮. Five measures of the A theme are stated in the new key, but then the half-​step shift back to dominant harmony is effected with a fortissimo/​piano dynamic marking at measure 161 (164). The A theme is extended slightly. There follows a closing section that is accompanied with non-​stop sixteenth notes in the left hand reminiscent of the C section. The movement ends quietly.

 

The Opus 10 Set

Biographical Snapshot Sketches for this set date from 1794, before the composition of the first four sonatas. Beethoven was in Vienna studying with Haydn through the sponsorship of Maximilian Franz (1756–​1801), the Elector of Bonn, but this support waned, so Beethoven had to borrow from Haydn. In late 1793 Haydn sent compositions by Beethoven to the elector as evidence of work accomplished. The elector’s response claimed that the compositions he received had already been heard in Bonn before Beethoven’s departure and ended by saying, “I very much doubt that he has made any important progress, and I fear … he will bring back nothing but debts.”1 It has been established that the manuscript paper on which the compositions were written is of Viennese origin, so the elector was either mistaken or was making an excuse to suspend Beethoven’s support, which he did in early 1794. However, by the time the op. 10 was completed (1797), Beethoven’s fame had grown considerably in Vienna, and he was earning money from commissions.

Factual Information The op. 10 was published by Joseph Eder (1760–​1835) in about 1798. Eder was not a publisher of distinction; this set is believed to be the only original work he published by a composer of significance. The set is dedicated to Anna Margarete Browne, reported to have been an excellent pianist. She was the wife of Count Johann Georg von Browne-​Camus (1767–​1827), an officer in the Imperial Russian Army of Irish descent, who was a patron of the composer in the 1790s. Beethoven dedicated the string trios op. 9 and the piano sonata op. 22 to him. The composer described him as the “first Maecenas of his Muse” in a dedicatory letter written in Vienna in July 1798, meant for an untraced work.2   Elliot Forbes, ed., Thayer’s Life of Beethoven (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967), 145.   Arthur Eaglefield-​Hull, ed., Beethoven’s Letters, trans. J.  S. Shedock (New  York:  Dutton, 1926; repr., New York: Dover, 1972), 12. 1 2

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Observations Structure

The set opens with two lighter sonatas written in the more typical three-​movement pattern with shorter movements. These two works have the reputation of being good pieces for those studying Beethoven sonatas for the first time. The third sonata of the set returns to the larger four-​movement structure as exemplified in the op. 2 set and the op. 7. One new structural concept is introduced in the final movement of the op. 10, no. 2.

Performance The composer continues to build on characteristics noted in the first Indications four sonatas: extreme dynamics, rapid dynamic change, and frequent accents, often on weak beats. Possible It is speculated that the three sonatas were meant to be played together Connections because the first sonata of the set ends in the parallel major (C), a key that could act as the dominant for the key of the second sonata (F). Also, the second sonata ends with descending octaves in the right hand and the third opens with ascending octaves. These connections seem tenuous as support for the case that the three sonatas need to be played together, and they are most often played individually.

No. 1 Observations Possible Connections between Movements Key Relationships

The first and third movements present opening motives that focus on the third of the scale as a point of arrival or a high point. The second movement’s opening theme also rises from the tonic to the third of the scale. The 2nd movement is in the submediant of the home key, A♭ major. This relationship appears in other works and movements in c minor: in op. 13 between the first and second movements and as the C section in the rondo movement; in op. 27, no. 1, as the middle section of the second movement, and in op. 111 as the second theme area of the exposition in the first movement. A parallel relationship between f minor and D♭ major can be seen between the first two movements of the op. 57. This is the only minor sonata of the

 

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thirty-​two in which the last movement starts in the home key but ends in the parallel major. This relationship occurs, however, in other internal or opening sonata movements: op. 27, no. 1, second movement; op. 49, no. 1, first movement; op. 106, third movement; op. 110, second movement; and op. 111, first movement. In these examples the closing parallel major prepares the listener for the opening of the following movement. First movement:  c minor—​Allegro molto e con brio—​3/​4—​Sonata-​Allegro—​ repeat exposition Exposition Measure(s)

1–​31

The movement opens with a forte tonic chord followed by a series of “Mannhiem rockets” in the right hand in dotted rhythm, answered each time by a lyrical phrase that ends with a falling second. (See the opening of op. 2, no.1.) At measure 22 the dotted rhythm figure intensifies.

32–​55

An unusually long transition presents chord progressions in A♭ major, f minor, and D♭ major, the last extended to arrive on the dominant of E♭ major, the expected key for the second theme area.

56–​93

The second theme is stated, its second phrase extended to a climax that features the reentry of the dotted rhythm of the first theme (measures 86–​9 0).

94–​105

A closing section presents a series of cadences in E♭ major over a bass line using material drawn from measures 48–​55 of the transition.

Development Measure(s)

106–​17 118–​35

The opening thematic material is presented in C major. A new theme appears in f minor and b♭ minor. Although its exact contour did not appear in the exposition, it is possibly related to answering phrases of the opening theme (measures 3–​5, 9–​12, etc.) and/​perhaps to the melodic phrase of the transition (measures 32–​36, etc.).

 

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136–​58

A fragment of the new theme is presented and extended, passing through D♭ major, b♭ minor, f minor, and c minor.

Upbeat to Staccato chords that outline the home key descend to 159–​67 usher in the recapitulation.

Recapitulation Measure(s)

All events occur with alterations as noted below. 191–​214 The transition acts as a “turnaround,” presenting its chord progression twice in G♭ major, then in its extended version in e♭ minor, moving to a dominant with a flat ninth in preparation for the second theme. 215-​32

The second theme is presented in F major. Its third phrase is repeated, its dominant-​to-​tonic progression arriving in f minor (measure 229), which in turn acts as the subdominant in a progression that leads to the home key (c minor). The prominence of F major or f minor in the recapitulations of movements in c minor can also be observed in the first movements of the opp. 13 and 111.

233–​63 The opening phrase of the second theme is presented in c minor, the first time the theme unfolds in minor rather than major. It is extended much as it was in the exposition. 263–​84 The reentry of the opening motive and the closing section are stated in the home key. Second movement:  A♭ major—​Adagio molto—​2/​4—​Sonata-​Allegro (without development), coda—​no repeats Structure

Measure(s)

The sonata-​allegro structure without development is sometimes termed “truncated” sonata-​allegro. The structure also occurs in the second movements of op. 2, no. 1, op. 31, no. 2, and with a slight modification in op. 81a. In this movement the end of the exposition is at measure 44; the recapitulation begins at measure 46. 24 and 71 The second-​theme areas are in the dominant and tonic respectively. 91–​112

A nondevelopmental coda uses alternation between tonic and dominant to bring the movement to a quiet close.

 

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Performance Observation

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This is possibly the most challenging movement in the sonata owing to its extremely slow tempo and complex rhythmic patterns. Note values range from quarter notes to sixty-​fourth notes, the latter in elaborate ornamental figurations at measures 28–​30 and 75–​77.

Third movement:  c minor—​Prestissimo—​alla breve—​Sonata-​Allegro, coda—​ repeat exposition Exposition Measure(s)

Performance Observation

The exposition is extremely compact at only 46 measures. 1–​16

The opening theme is based on a rhythmic figure characterized by a five-​note upbeat.

Upbeat to 17–​28 Upbeat to 29–​37

A jovial second theme is in the expected relative major (E♭). The opening theme returns in E♭ major and is extended.

Upbeat to 38–​46

The closing theme uses a fragment of the opening theme.

34–​35 and 91–​92

A polyrhythmic passage (three against four) poses the most difficult technical challenge of the movement, perhaps even of the entire sonata.

Development Measure(s)

A development section of only 12 measures is based on the opening motive. Upbeat to 55–​57

The opening motive is fragmented to produce a rhythmic figure that may recall the famous opening of Beethoven’s Symphony no. 5, op. 67.

Recapitulation Measure(s)

Upbeat to 74–​81

The second theme returns in the parallel major (C major). At the upbeat to measure 82, a repetition of a phrase from the second theme arrives at the home key of c minor.

85–​101

Events heard in the exposition are presented.

 

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102–​22

A modulation to D♭ major ushers in an unusually long coda section in which the second theme is stated in D♭ major. Suspense is introduced with a fermata and a measure marked Adagio. The opening tempo returns with the first theme motive in C major, the key which brings the movement to a quiet close.

No. 2 Observations Overview

This work is lighthearted and cheerful with touches of robust humor. A minuet and trio type in a moderate tempo serves as a slow movement. The final movement is a perpetual-​motion composition, a variant of sonata-​allegro form with a compressed exposition, a development that uses the first and second themes, and a rewritten recapitulation that contains developmental modulations.

Possible Connections between Movements

Measures 5–​8 of the first movement present a rising line that stops on the notes f ′′, a′′, and c′′′. The fourth movement opening theme presents the same rising pitches in a different register using repeated notes.

First movement:  F major—​Allegro—​2/​4—​Sonata-​Allegro—​repeat exposition and development/​recapitulation Exposition

Measure(s)

Although the expected tonic/​dominant relationship exists between the first and second theme areas, the movement presents a variety of fleeting harmonic surprises, as if it were a playful, deft improvisation. 1–​4

Two tonic chords followed by triplet sixteenth notes open the movement. Compare the articulation of this sixteenth triplet figure with that of the first movement of op. 2, no. 1 (measure 2, for example). Here the slur is not extended to the following staccato quarter note, whereas in the earlier work it is. Here the quarter note should not be treated as the end of a phrase but, rather, as the downbeat of a new measure.

 

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Upbeat to The second part of the opening theme consists of a lyrical 5–​12 four-​measure line that rises through a range of over an octave, followed by an answer that features a short trill, a three-​note slide, and a dotted rhythmic pattern. Upbeat to The opening chords return in altered harmony, leading to 13–​18 the dominant of a minor. Upbeat to The lyrical rising line returns with a sixteenth-​note 19–​36 L.H. accompaniment, now in C major and modulating to G major. 38–​54

The second theme is a four-​measure harmonic progression in C major, moving to c minor, then with a surprise resolution to D♭ major (measures 43–​4 4), and returning to C major.

55–​66

A closing section in C major features three measure-​long closing trills with after-​notes, two of them executed by the right hand crossed over the left.

Development

Measure(s)

The composer’s teasing is evident in that the development section consists mostly of presenting the last three cadence octaves of the exposition in a variety of keys, eschewing the many other ideas from the exposition that might have been used. 67–​76 (68–​77)

The last three notes of the exposition open in a minor and modulate to d minor. They are accompanied by a triplet figure.

77–​94 (78–​95)

The triplet figure accompaniment is expanded into a new theme in broken octaves that opens in d minor and moves to g minor and B♭ major.

95–​117 (96–​118)

The three-​note pattern that opened the development returns in B♭ major, b♭ minor, and f minor. The passage ends with a half-​cadence that leads to D major, using a sparse wide-​range texture followed by a fermata, a gesture suggesting that the performer is troubled over having mistakenly arrived at the recapitulation in the wrong key.

 

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Recapitulation Measure(s)

Upbeat to 118–​36 (119–​37)

The first theme is stated in D major through measure 129 (130). Then, following a rhythmic rest, D major becomes the dominant of g minor, which in turn acts as the supertonic in the home key (F major). The triplet figure is repeated several times as a celebration of having found the way back to the home key, which then presents the balance of the first theme material.

153–​62 (154–​63)

A “turnaround” presents first theme material in the left hand in f minor and E♭ major, acting as the dominant of A♭ major.

170–​202 (171–​204)

The second theme opens in the tonic and unfolds regularly. The closing section, also in F major, extends its final cadence one additional time, the movement ending abruptly with the three octaves that closed the exposition and were used extensively in the development.

Second movement:  f minor—​Allegretto—​3/​4—​Minuet and trio |:A:|:B:|| C C′DD′||AA′B′|| Structure

This movement is modeled on the minuet and trio but is not designated either a minuet or a scherzo. Other sonatas in which such movements occur are the opp. 7 (3); 14, no. 1 (2); 27, no. 1 (2) and 2 (2); 101 (2, duple meter, designated a march); and 110 (2, duple meter.) Several irregularities occur in this movement. In the D♭ middle section (“trio”) the repeats in both halves are written out in order to effect small figural variations. The return is not indicated by da capo but is written out. The A section is played twice, once as it appeared initially and then with variations. The B section is varied at its onset and played only once.

Third movement: F major—​Presto—​2/​4—​Modified Sonata-​Allegro—​repeat both sections Exposition Measure(s)

The exposition is very short at only 27 measures. 1–​18

The opening theme is imitative and initially appears to be written in voice levels. The uppermost voice enters in the dominant (C major) at measure 9 and clearly cadences in that key by measure 18.

 

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23–​32

Development Measure(s)

Upbeat to 33–​50 51–​68

67–​86

Recapitulation

What serves as a second or closing theme uses the same rhythmic patterns as the opening theme, creating a strong sense of unity for the exposition.

The opening theme is presented in A♭ major and modulates to b♭ minor, then to f minor.

A fragment of the opening theme is presented in imitation at various voice levels passing through c minor, g minor, and d minor, coming to rest on a dominant that sets up D major. The second thematic idea from the exposition is stated in D major and moves to the dominant of the home key (F major) in preparation for the recapitulation.

The recapitulation is rewritten substantially: sixteenth-​ note and tremolo figuration accompany an extended statement of the first theme. The second theme unfolds more as it appeared in the exposition except in different registers and slightly extended. Upbeat to The first theme in altered form enters in F major and 87–​124 passes through g minor, B♭ major, and b♭ minor. 125–​50

The second thematic idea is stated in F major, is extended, and ends with descending R.-​H. octaves, the gesture being so abrupt as to evoke possibly a final chuckle.

No. 3 Observations Overview

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This sonata represents a return to the expanded four-​movement structure used in the op. 2 set and the op. 7. The first movement is in sonata-​allegro form but exhibits several unusual features in its exposition (see below). The second movement is deemed one of the most profound slow movements in the composer’s piano sonatas, especially noteworthy because it appears at this early point in his output. The third movement is a minuet and trio, the

 

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first appearance of this designation since the op. 2, no. 1. The last movement bears the title “Rondo,” and, indeed, there is a recurring central theme, but otherwise the structure is more improvisatory than other rondo patterns in the early sonatas. Possible Connections between Movements

The first and second movements open with the same two melodic notes in the same register, descending a half-​step. The fourth movement opens with an ascending half-​step, transposed up a fourth to the subdominant. The first and fourth movements open with non-​tonic harmony, both delaying clear cadences for several measures, ten in the first movement and nine in the fourth. Both movements also present opening phrases that end with a fermata on the dominant at the same pitch.

First movement:  D major—​Presto—​alla breve—​Sonata-​Allegro, coda—​repeat exposition Exposition

The exposition challenges structural expectations in that a second theme is presented in the submediant immediately after the first theme. When the modulation to the dominant occurs, a motive drawn from the first four notes of the opening theme is introduced (measure 53) and is prominent for the remainder of the exposition.

Measure(s) 1–​22

The first theme is introduced in four measures of staccato octaves (upbeat to measures 1–​4), suggesting a Mannheim orchestral opening (see op. 2, no. 1, first movement opening). It is restated in parallel chords in six-​three inversion (upbeat to measures 5–​10), in broken sixths (upbeat to measures 11–​16), and finally in a broken octave texture (upbeat to measures 17–​22). The broken sixths can be counted among the technical challenges described as occurring near openings of sonatas. Other examples that exhibit such challenges are the op. 2, no. 2 (rapid scales, measures 32–​38); op. 2, no. 3 (double thirds, measures 1–​3); op. 31, no. 2 (rapid two-​note slurs, upbeat to measures 3–​18); op. 57 (broken arpeggio, measures 14–​15); and op. 81a (double notes, measures 29-​33).

Upbeat to 23–​53

A second theme appears in b minor, a key that eventually acts as the supertonic of A major. It is expanded to culminate in a strong cadence leading to the dominant (A major).

 

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53–​105

A second theme based on the first four notes of the opening theme is initially presented with a notation of a grace note with an eighth-​note stem followed by four normal eighth notes. There is a strong tradition of playing these notes evenly as four eighth notes. At the upbeat to measure 67 this motive appears in augmentation as four quarter notes, passing through C major, d minor, and B♭ major. At the upbeat to measure 94, the motive appears in staccato octaves again, then in staccato single notes with an altered phrase shape and extended to the same four-​ measure length as its original appearance as a first theme.

Upbeat to 106–​24

A closing section is formed by yet another shape of the four-​note idea, augmented to half notes (upbeat to measures 106–​13), followed by a return of the four-​note pattern in quarter notes as it appeared in the upbeat to measure 67.

Development Measure(s)

Upbeat to 125–​28

The four-​note motive as it appeared in the closing section of the exposition is extended to open the development.

Upbeat to 129–​83

The opening of the movement is repeated in D major. After a fermata, an unexpected entry in B♭ major (measure 133) ushers in the opening four-​measure motive in yet another shape. It is repeated with answering phrases and fragmentation, moving through g minor, E♭ major, and d minor, finally coming to rest on the dominant of the home key.

Recapitulation Upbeat to The aforementioned broken sixths become the point at 194–​204 which the recapitulation diverges from the exposition, creating yet another challenge. Upbeat to The theme that appeared in b minor in the exposition is 205–​33 now in e minor, acting as the supertonic to the home key. Upbeat to All material in the exposition is repeated in the home key. 234–​98

 

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Upbeat to The four-​note motive is extended into a coda, passing 299–​344 through g minor and the dominant of E♭ major and arriving at the home key (measure 327), at which point the figure builds to a brilliant close. Second movement:  d minor—​Largo e mesto—​6/​8—​Sonata-​Allegro, coda—​no repeats Concept

This movement is serious and profound, aesthetically joining the concepts of the earlier slow movements of op. 2, nos. 2 and 3, and the op. 7. The use of the term mesto (sad, melancholic) in conjunction with the tempo sets the mood of the movement.

Exposition Measure(s) 1–​9

An opening theme moves to g minor (measure 5) and then through diminished seventh harmonies to return to the opening key.

9–​17

A second theme in d minor modulates to C major.

Upbeat to A section in the dominant minor (a minor) features 18–​29 repeated cadences using augmented sixths to half-​cadence resolutions, often extended with diminished seventh figures, at one point extended and marked with dramatic fortissimo/​piano indications (measure 24). A final new phrase closes the section (upbeat to measures 27–​29).

Development Measure(s)

30–​36

The section opens with a theme in F major that seems new but is possibly derived from measures 14–​15.

35–​43

Orchestra-​like contrasts of texture, dynamics, and register act as a dramatic link to the recapitulation.

Recapitulation Measure(s)

44–​56

The first theme is altered, a passage in Neapolitan harmony (measures 49–​50) acting as a turnaround to connect to the closing measures of the second theme in the home key. The material presented in measures 9–​13 of the exposition is omitted.

 

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65–​75

A lengthy, dramatic coda introduces the first theme in lower registers with an active thirty-second-​note accompaniment in the right hand. Chromatic harmonic movement and diminished seventh harmonies build to a climax, at which point the orchestra-​like texture from the development is recalled (measures 72–​75).

76–​87

Fragments of the opening motive are presented in a quiet, thinner texture to bring the movement to its close with a final widely spaced single line.

Third movement: Menuetto—​D major—​Allegro—​3/​4—​|:A:|:B:||C|D|| da capo Observation

This compact, charming movement presents a continuous-​motion trio section in G major, thirty-​two measures long without repeats.

Fourth movement: Rondo—​Allegro—​D major—​Allegro—​4/​4—​ABACA′A coda Structure

The composer’s designation “rondo” is reflected in the recurrence of the A theme. The pattern does not follow the symmetrical one used in other final rondo movements (opp. 2, no. 2, and 3, 7, 13, etc.), and the interjection of unexpected keys suggests development or improvisation.

Measure(s) Upbeat to The opening theme in G major features a short three-​note 1–​16 motive interspersed with rests. A second idea in the home key presents a rising scalar line, first in staccato octaves then in single notes in the left hand (measures 9–​16). 17–​24

A very short B section presents a chromatic line over dominant harmony. Upbeat to The return of A is abbreviated, modulating to B♭ major. 25–​34 35–​55 The C section combines a new theme in B♭ major that modulates to E♭ major, then states the opening A motive in B♭. Then follows a cadenza-​like passage that arrives on the dominant of the home key with a fermata. Upbeat to The complete A theme is restated, but instead of the 56–​83 foregoing B section, it is followed by a development of the opening motive, passing through b minor, and quickly thorugh B♭ major, and e♭ minor before coming to rest once again on the dominant of the home key with a fermata.

 

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Upbeat to The first part of the A theme is stated again with variations 84–​99 in register. A new phrase grows out of the three-​note motive and rises to a climax followed by a short cadenza and a fermata. Upbeat to A coda is built on the three-​note motive, which, after 100–​13 a chordal interlude (upbeat to measures 102–​5), is combined with a chromatic scale, possibly drawn from the B section. The movement dies away with the three-​ note motive in the left hand and arpeggios in the right.

 

Opus 13 (“Pathétique”)

Biographical Snapshot Several important professional friendships developed for Beethoven during this period in Vienna. He befriended Antonio Salieri (1750–​1825) and studied Italian song style with the older composer for a two-​year period around 1800. Several prominent pianists who spent time in Vienna were also part of the composer’s professional world, notably Joseph Wölffl (1773–​1812), whose playing was widely admired and who dedicated a set of sonatas to Beethoven, and Johann Baptiste Cramer (1771–​1858), whose playing and compositions Beethoven revered. In addition to the op. 13, Beethoven was engaged in writing the op. 18 set of six string quartets and the Symphony no. 1, op. 21. During this period the composer taught the sisters Josephine and Therese Brunsvik and fell in love with Josephine. She married Count Joseph Deym (1752–​1804) a year later, but Beethoven’s feelings for her were rekindled after the count’s death. (See the biographical snapshot for the op. 57.) Therese never married, but her memoirs and correspondence with Beethoven are a useful source of information about the composer.

Factual Information The designation “Pathétique” was one used generally in the period to indicate emotional intensity, a concept that appealed to members of a society laden with formality. The name appeared on a December 18, 1799, announcement of the work’s publication by Franz Anton Hoffmeister (1754–​1812). Two months later the work was also published by Joseph Eder (1760–​1835). The sonata enjoyed immediate popularity, for it was published seventeen times during Beethoven’s lifetime. The op. 13 is dedicated to Prince Karl Lichnowsky (1761–​1814). The prince and his wife Maria Christiane (1765–​1841) were both accomplished musicians and patrons of the arts. Shortly after he arrived in Vienna Beethoven lived in

133

 

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the Lichnowsky household for several years, and many of the composer’s works were heard for the first time at musical evenings there. Moreover, the prince was influential in garnering support from other members of the nobility. Beethoven dedicated several important works to the prince: the piano sonatas opp. 13 and 26, the piano trios op. 1, and the Symphony no. 2, op. 36.

Observations Overview

This sonata is the first in a group that might be regarded as dramatic three-​movement sonatas. It includes other popular piano sonatas known by alternate names: op. 27, no. 2 (“Moonlight”), op. 31, no. 2 (“Tempest”), op. 53 (“Waldstein”), op. 57 (“Appassionata”),; and op. 81a (“Lebewohl”). The op. 13 contains two themes that are among the composer’s best known: the opening phrase of the first movement and the central theme of the second.

Possible Connections between Movements

The first and second movements, although they are in different keys, open with the same melodic note at the same pitch (c′), and the opening phrase rises to the same e♭′, which is prolonged and resolves downward. The third movement’s first phrase might be regarded as a variation of the opening idea of the first movement, the upbeat in the third movement passing through the notes c′′ and d′′ to e♭′′ on the downbeat of the first full measure and moving back down to c′′ by the end of the phrase. The closing section of the first movement’s exposition shows syncopation (measures 89–​9 0, etc.) similar to that in the second theme of the third movement (measures 25 and 31), both in the key of E♭ major.

The first movement’s second theme is in the parallel minor of the expected relative major (measures 51–​63), and the third movement’s second theme moves fleetingly through the same key (measures 31–​34). Both emphase the lowered third degree of the scale with sforzandi (measures 53–​54, etc., in the first movement and measures 33–​34 in the 3rd). First movement: c minor—​Grave: Allegro di molto e con brio—​4/​4: 4/​4 (alla breve)—​Sonata-​Allegro—​repeat exposition

 

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Observations Structure

The dotted rhythm of the introduction suggests the style of the Baroque French overture, a style the composer is to use again at the start of the op. 111. Its reappearance throughout the movement, both at its original tempo and as a motive in the Allegro, is a procedure Beethoven also used in the first movement of the op. 31, no. 2.

Performance Controversy exists as to where to start the repeat of the exposition. Practice Of the seventeen editions published during Beethoven’s lifetime, all but two show the first repeat indication at the Allegro di molto. It is, however, not shown in two contemporary editions as well as in Haslinger’s edition (c.1828) and in Breitkopf & Härtel’s Beethoven Gesamtausgaben (1860). The absence of the repeat sign suggests that the introduction should be included in the repeat of the exposition. Performers who take the repeat of the exposition do not agree on whether to go back to the beginning of the movement or the Allegro di molto. Introduction Grave 4/​4

The dotted rhythm of the French overture had been used in chamber works, symphonies, and keyboard works such as the partitas of J. S. Bach. Other composers of the period who incorporated this style into the piano sonata are Haydn (Hob. XVI/​37) and Clementi (opp. 34, no. 2, and 40, no. 3). As noted, Beethoven is to use it again in the introduction to the first moement of the Op. 111. In the op. 13 most performers play the dotted rhythm as written. The English music historian Thurston Dart (1921–​1971) suggested that the practice of maintaining the quickest possible relationship between the short antecedent and the following strong beat in the French overture style persisted well into the early nineteenth century. Dart cites the music of Beethoven for a possible application of this principle without citing this work specifically.1

Allegro di molto e con brio alla breve

  Thurston Dart, The Interpretation of Music (New York: Harper and Row, 1954), 82–​83.

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Measure(s)

11–​49 The opening theme features a rising set of double notes over a tremolo bass pedal point, all marked piano. The L.H. tremolo figure was easier to play and control on period pianos. 38–​49 The opening phrase of the first theme modulates up through A♭ major and B♭ major, the latter extended through cadences reiterating the dominant of the expected relative major (E♭ major).

51–​88 The second theme is introduced in the parallel minor of the relative major (e♭ minor), a relationship suggested but not realized in the first-​movement expositions of the opp. 2, no. 1, and 27, no. 2. The relationship emerges full-​blown in the first movement exposition of the op. 57 (after a statement of the second theme in the expected relative major). 89–​132 An extended closing section in the relative major (E♭ major) culminates in a restatement of the first theme in that key.

Development Measure(s)

133–​36 Introductory material, marked Tempo I, modulates to e (135–​38) minor and acts as a bridge to a return of the Allegro di molto. 137–​49 The opening phrase of the first theme is juxtaposed with the (139–​51) opening phrase of the introduction, the latter now heard in the faster tempo, moving through e minor to g minor. 149–​58 The opening phrase of the introduction is fragmented, its (151–​6 0) last two notes now heard as a rapid two-​note figure. 167–​87 A pedal point on the dominant of the home key supports (169–​89) ominous figuration in a low register of the keyboard that uses the opening phrase of the allegro theme to rise to a reiterated climax, now supported by overlapping half-​ notes in the low register, a texture that must have startled audiences of the period.

Recapitulation Measure(s)

207–​19 (209–​21)

The “turnaround” extends the first theme’s allegro phrase through the keys of D♭ major and e♭ minor and arrives on a half-​cadence in f minor.

 

O pu s 1 3 ( “Pathétique ” )

137

221–​94 (223–​96)

The second theme starts in the subdominant (f minor) but arrives back in the home key in measure 237 (239). The subdominant relationship can be seen in the first-​movement recapitulations of both of the other Beethoven piano sonatas in c minor, the op.10, no. 1 (where the theme opens in F major rather than minor, measures 215–​232), and the op. 111 in measures 124–​28 (125–​29). The remainder of the recapitulation presents all material heard in the exposition, including the return of the first theme of the allegro.

295–​98 (297–​300)

A final return of the theme from the introduction leads to a suspenseful half-​cadence in the home key.

299–​310 (301–​312)

The final statement of the first theme of the Allegro brings the movement to a brilliant close, the final cadence a series of short chords marked fortissimo.

Second movement: A♭ major—​Adagio cantabile—​2/​4—​ABACA, coda Structure Measure(s) 1–​8 etc.

37–​73

The two departures, B and C, are in f minor, modulating to E♭ major, and in a♭ minor, modulating to E major.

The opening theme has been singled out by writers as an example of unusual slurring, as shown in early editions and recent critical editions. Nineteenth-​century editors often changed the slurring in order to effect long-​line articulation. The original slurring is consistent each time the A theme appears. Various theories have been advanced as to why the composer chose this pattern, one of the most logical being that it was born of attempting to play the theme with as much legato as possible without the aid of the damper pedal, the slurs outlining changes in hand position. A triplet sixteenth-​note figure accompanies the C section and remains for the restatement of the A theme and the coda.

55 and 63 The first edition aligns the last note of the sixteenth-​note triplet figure with two thirty-​second notes in the melodic line, implying an earlier performance practice of extending the length of the R.H. dotted eighth note to accommodate this congruity. Some editors adjust the alignment to a visual presentation that suggests polyrhythmic execution. Third movement: c minor—​Rondo; allegro—​4/​4 (alla breve)—​ABACABA, coda

 

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138

The first B section is in E♭ major; the second opens in C major and moves to the home key (c minor). The C section is in A♭ major.

Structure

Measure(s) Upbeat to The first theme presents an interesting array of articulation 1–​17 details. The first full measure shows a phrase mark that ends at the measure’s last eighth note, suggesting that the downbeat of the following measure should be strong. This strong downbeat matches the downbeat of measure 4, preceded by staccato quarter notes. The two-​note couplets in the follow phrases add to the challenge of articulation. Finally, the care with which the composer indicated staccato marks is exemplified by comparing the quarter note on the downbeat of measure 8, where the note shows no staccato, thus ending the phrase, with the downbeats of measures 12 and 14, where staccato marks attend the quarter notes in order to highlight the ensuing syncopation. Compare also the quarter notes in measures 5 and 6 to those in measures 9 and 10. Measure(s) Upbeat to The C section features a more sustained theme and 79–​107 invertible counterpoint. 107–​20

A crescendoing passage built on the dominant of the home key prepares the way for the return of A.

182–​210

A dramatic coda based on the A and B themes feature off-​ beat sforzandi and a sustained dominant seventh in the key of A♭ major. A surprise return to the home key brings the work to a brilliant close. Departures to remote keys or slowing the tempo in codas occur several times in the sonatas. Compare this ending with the endings of opp. 2, no. 3; 10, no. 1; 78; 81a; and 101.

 

The Opus 14 Set

Biographical Snapshot See the biographical snapshot for op. 13, published the same year.

Factual Information This set was published in late 1799 by Tranquillo Mollo (1767–​1837), who began his publishing career at Artaria but in 1798 became an independent publisher of maps, art, and music. His company existed until 1839, publishing a few works of Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, and minor composers. Sketches exist for all three movements of the first sonata of this set, probably dating from 1798. Both sonatas are dedicated to Josephine von Braun (1765–​1838), whose husband Peter (1758–​1819) was in charge of two court theaters in Vienna. The dedication may have helped Beethoven secure the Burgtheater in order to present a program featuring his works on April 2, 1800.

Observations Concept

Both sonatas represent Beethoven’s return to a smaller classical three-​movement sonata after the expanded op. 2 set, the opp. 7 and 10 no. 3, as well as the dramatic op. 13. These sonatas are similar in concept to the op. 10, nos. 1 and 2, and, although each has its challenges, they are often among the first Beethoven sonatas assigned to students.

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140

No. 1 Transcription

Although the composer complained about the “unnatural mania” for transcribing piano music for string instruments, he acquiesced to a request to transcribe the first sonata for string quartet with the comment that “nobody else could do the same thing with ease.”1 The quartet version was announced on August 14, 1802, along with the op. 28 sonata, by a new publishing firm, Bureau d’Arts et d’Industrie. The transcription raised the key from E major to F major, possibly to allow the lowest string on the violoncello to function as a dominant. The Allegro marking of the first movements was changed to Allegro moderato, and the Allegro commodo of the final movement to Allegro.

Possible Connections between Movements

The first and third movements open with a melodic line that begins on the fifth degree of the scale and moves upward. The first and third movements present second themes that open with monophonic lines that lead to a cadence.

First movement: E major—​Allegro—​4/​4—​Sonata-​Allegro—​repeat exposition Exposition Measure(s) 5–​6

7–​56

The broken-​thirds figure is an example of Beethoven’s penchant for placing a technical challenge very near the opening of a sonata. Other examples are the rapid scales in op. 2, no. 2 (measures 32–​38), the double thirds in op. 2, no. 3 (measures 1–​3), the broken sixths in op.10, no. 3 (upbeat to measures 11–​15), the rapid two-​note slurs in op. 31, no. 2 (upbeat to measures 3–​18), the broken arpeggio in op. 57 (measures 14–​15), and the double notes in op. 81a (measures 29–​33). The texture periodically shows free voice levels, perhaps suggesting to the composer the viability of transcribing this sonata for strings.

57–​61 The opening phrase serves as material for the closing section.

  AND I:74–​75.

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The O p u s  1 4  Se t

141

Development Measure(s)

61–​80 (62–​81)

The opening phrase is extended and leads to new thematic material at the upbeat to measure 66 (67) that opens in a minor and passes through C major and e minor.

81–​9 0 (82–​91)

The opening phrase returns in a form similar to that of the closing section of the exposition and acts as a transition to the recapitulation.

Recapitulation Measure(s)

91–​93 (92–​94)

For the first time in the sonatas, the entry of the opening theme is rewritten, here unfolding with scales in the left hand and full chords in the right hand. Other sonatas in which the composer uses this technique are the opp. 57, 101, 106, 109, and 110.

103–​6 (104–​7)

The “turnaround” presents the opening theme in C major. An interesting parallel relationship exists in the recapitulation of the opening movement of the op. 109, where C major is dynamically the strongest moment in the movement (measure 62).

148–​62 The opening theme as used in the closing section of (149–​63) the exposition is extended to form a coda. Second movement: e minor—​Allegretto—​3/​4—​modified minuet and trio Measure(s)

1–​32

The first eight-​measure segment is repeated an octave higher, as is the second eight-​meausre segment.

33–​62

The first thematic idea is repeated and expanded.

63–​78

A trio section called “Maggiore” is in C major and marked to be repeated.

79–​100

A second section of the trio is to be played without repeat and ends with a half-​cadence leading back to the home key (e minor) with a da capo indication.

101–​16

A coda follows the da capo return and recalls the Maggiore theme.

 

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142

Third movement:  E major—​ Rondo:  Allegro commodo—​ 2/​ 4 (alla breve)— ​ABACAB, coda Structure

Measure(s)

The two B sections are somewhat unusual in that they are extremely short (10 measures) and are in the dominant (B major) and subdominant (A major) respectively. 47–​83

A new key signature of one sharp announces the C section, material being stated in G major, passing through a minor and b minor, and then being restated in e minor.

Upbeat to 109–​11

The final statement of the A theme begins with a syncopated variation, followed by continuing alterations that serve as a coda to the movement.

No. 2 Observations Structure

Two interesting features attend this sonata. The use of the variation form as a second movement marks the first in the composer’s sonatas, but it represents a marriage that will become increasingly important, appearing again in the opp. 57 (second movement), 109, and 111 (final movements). The second feature is the use of the term “scherzo” as an indication of character, but not in conjunction with a minuet and trio structure. This usage occurs only one other time in the sonatas: the second movement of the op. 31, no. 3.

Possible Both the first and the third movements open with upbeats, ushering Connections in the tonic preceeded by a pair of changing notes. (measure 2 in the between first movement and measures 3–​4 in the third. Movements First movement: G major—​Allegro—​2/​4—​Sonata-​Allegro—​repeat exposition Exposition Measure(s)

The exposition presents traditional key relationships, the second theme area being in the dominant. 20–​24 and 147–​51

Early sources are not clear as to whether the sextuplets should be played in two sets of three or three sets of two. Editors’ recommendations differ.

47–​63

An unusually long closing section of seemingly new material is presented.

 

The O p u s  1 4  Se t

143

Development Measure(s)

Upbeat to 64–​80 81–​98

Upbeat to 99–​124

Recapitulation Measure(s)

The first theme is stated in g minor and the second in B♭ major.

The first theme returns in the left hand, with triplets in the right hand, creating a polyrhythmic challenge that moves through A♭ major, g minor, and f minor and comes to rest on a dominant seventh in E♭ major. The first theme returns in E♭ major and is extended in the left hand with thirty-​second-​note scales in the right hand (measures 107–​14). A fragment of the opening theme serves as a transition to the recapitulation.

Like the exposition, the recapitulation is traditional. 187–​200

A short coda based on the main theme closes the movement.

Second movement—​C major—​Andante—​4/​4—​Theme and Three Variations Theme

The theme is in a two-​part structure, the first part eight measures long and the second twelve. The composer notes that the first part is not to be repeated; the second part is repeated. The ensuing variations of the theme are rhythmically more active with each variation, This procedure was typical of variations of the classical period. It is sometimes referred to as a “rhythmic crescendo.” Often note values are shortened to create more activity without changing the tempo. In this set of variations, the composer is able to sustain the “rhythmic crescendo” to the end of the movement, for there are only three variations. When there are more variations this procedure reaches its limit and must be discontinuted, usually after the third or fourth variation.

Variation One Measure(s)

Upbeat to The first variation places the melody in the left 21–​40 (42) hand with a syncopated accompaniment in the right, leaving an impression of increased activity.

 

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Variation Two Measure(s)

Upbeat to 41–​6 0 (43–​63)

This variation features a disjunct left-​hand accompaniment in eighth notes with continuing syncopation in the right hand.

61–​64 (64–​67)

A four-​measure interlude links the second and third variations. The composer also uses interludes between variations in the final movement of the op. 111.

65–​9 0 (68–​93)

The final variation combines a legato left-​hand line with broken chords in sixteenth notes in the right hand. Four measures stating the opening phrase of the theme act as a coda.

Interlude Measure(s)

Variation Three Measure(s)

Third movement—​Scherzo—​G major—​Allegro assai—​3/​8—​ABACA, coda Structure Measure(s)

The structure is unusual in its imbalance, a characteristic that enhances the playfulness of the movement. 23–​41

The B section is in e minor, very short, and features bursts of sixteenth-​note triplets.

73–​124

A longer, more lyrical C section in C major unfolds with its own aba pattern.

Upbeat to 125–​89

After a playful transition based on first thteme material, the first theme returns (upbeat to measure 139) and is extended with strong dominant preparation.

189–​254

A lengthy coda presents cadence-​like material twice and ends with a return of fragments of the opening theme.

 

Opus  22

Biographical Snapshot Beethoven was earning enough from commissions by 1801 to afford a modest but comfortable standard of living: a servant, manuscript paper, and a few books in addition to basic necessities. Czerny’s account of his first visit and audition for Beethoven in 1801 was written in 1842, many years later, but it is nonetheless revealing: “[C]‌climbed to the fifth or sixth story where a rather untidy looking servant announced us to Beethoven and then admitted us. The room presented a most disorderly appearance, papers and articles of clothing scattered about everywhere, some trunks, bare walls, hardly a chair, save the wobbly one at the Walter piano (then the best)…. His beard—​he had not been shaved for several days—​made the lower part of his brown face still darker. I also noticed with that visual quickness peculiar to children that he had cotton that seemed to have been steeped in a yellowish liquid, in his ears. At that time, however, he did not give the least evidence of deafness.” Later, when Beethoven accepted Czerny as a student, he told Czerny’s father, “The boy has talent…. First of all, however, get him a copy of Emanuel Bach’s book on the true art of piano playing, for he must bring it with him the next time he comes.”1

Factual Information Beethoven was apparently proud of this work, for in introducing it to prospective publisher Franz Anton Hoffmeister (1754–​1812), the composer called it “first rate.”2 Hoffmeister had just founded a new publishing house, one that in 1814 became C. F. Peters, a firm that has remained one of the most illustrious publishers of music to this day. Hoffmeister published this sonata in mid-​January 1801. The   Elliot Forbes, ed., The Life of Ludwig van Beethoven (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967), II:227–​28. 2   AND I:47. 1

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work is dedicated to Count Georg von Browne-​Camus. Refer to the dedication of the op. 10 for information about the count.

Observations Overview

This work is deemed by some writers to be the last of the four-​ movement sonatas in the pattern of the opp. 2, 7, and 10, no. 3. Most of the later four-​movement sonatas, opp. 26; 31, no. 3; 101; 106; and 110, deviate in some way from the pattern represented by the earlier examples. The still-​to-​come op. 28, however, represents a later version of this early pattern.

Possible Connections between Movements

All four movements of this work present melodic phrases that move toward retardations or appoggiatura-​like resolutions: in the first movement at measure 6; in the second movement at measures 2, 3, 5, 8, and 12; in the third movement at measures 4, 8, 12, and 16; and in the fourth movement in measures 2, 4, 8, etc. The development sections of the first and second movements both contain dominant seventh or ninth progressions that resolve downward by fifths (measures 81–​92 and 34–​38 respectively).

First Movement: E♭ major—​Allegro con brio—​4/​4—​Sonata-​Allegro, repeat exposition, no coda Exposition

The exposition is lengthened by introducing a variety of thematic material, reminiscent of that of the first movement of the op. 7.

Measure(s) 22–​56 The second theme area presents two distinct themes in the dominant, as well as a section of passage work. The first consists of a lyrical line over a L.H. scale accompaniment (measures 22–​30), the second of chords introducing dotted rhythms and syncopation (upbeat to measures 31–​43), passage work arpeggios, and broken octaves (measures 44–​56). 56–​68 The closing section includes a harmonic reference to b♭ minor (the borrowed subdominant in F major), an eighth-​note figure that is possibly derived from the opening sixteenth-​note motive of the movement (measures 56–​61), octave scales opening with dotted rhythm (measures 62–​ 66), and a reference to the opening motive just before the final cadence (measures 66–​68).

 

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147

Development Measure(s)

Upbeat to 69–​81

The material in the closing section of the exposition is presented in reverse order: the sixteenth-​note opening motive (upbeat to measures 69–​70), followed by the octave scales (measures 71–​74) and the minor inflection, this time settling into a half-​cadence in g minor (measures 75–​81).

81–​104

The dotted rhythm of the octaves now enters in sixths and is extended ingeniously with the sixteenth-​note opening motive combined with scale fragments and arpeggios. This material passes through dominant ninth progressions in g minor, c minor and f minor (measures 81-​92), then moves quickly through f minor, c minor, and b ♭ minor (measures 93-​104).

105–​27

Recapitulation

Measure(s)

A lengthy re-​transition presents the octave phrase from the closing section of the exposition in single notes in the left hand, accompanied by broken chords in the right hand. It opens with a series of diminished seventh sonorities that resolve to the dominant of the home key.

All music in the exposition is recapitulated in this section, the second theme area in the tonic key without a coda. The movement ends with two fortissimo chords that follow a piano dynamic level. 142–​46 This passage is extended by two measures to serve as the “turnaround,” opening in c minor and moving through a series of descending parallel chordal cadences to the home key.

Second movement:  E♭ major—​Adagio con molta expressione—​9/​8—​Sonata-​ Allegro, no repeats Exposition

Measure(s)

1–​18

This is one of three second movements in the sonatas in 9/​8 time, the other two being the op. 31, no. 1, and the op. 79. Two themes in E♭ unfold, the second one starting at the upbeat to measure 13.

 

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148

Upbeats to The second theme is in the expected dominant. 19–​30 Development

31–​47

Recapitulation 47–​77

The development opens by presenting the first theme with new harmony that functions in c minor, but leads to a sequence that opens with a dominant seventh on G (measure 34) and unfolds with a series of dominant seventhts the progress in dominant-​to-​tonic relationships: C7 to F7 to B♭7 to E♭7, the latter resolving to a♭ minor, then to e♭ minor and finally the dominant seventh in the home key. This progression is presented with two voice levels in the right hand in imitative phrases. All material in the exposition is revisited with occasionally more elaborate decoration in the melodic line. There is a short “turnaround” (measures 61–​6 4) but no coda.

Third movement:  B♭ major—​Menuetto—​3/​4—​Minuet and Trio da capo |:A:|:B:|| :C:|:D:||A|B| Structure

The minuet and trio pattern is followed without unusual features. The AB section is “rounded.” The trio is in g minor, the C section ending in the dominant minor (d minor).

Fourth movement: B♭ major—​Rondo; Allegretto—​2/​4—​ABACABA coda Structure

The two B sections are in the expected dominant and tonic. The final two statements of A are attended by figural variations.

Measure(s) 72–​111 An elaborate C section presents its own aba pattern. It opens with new material in f minor. A middle section develops material that was used as transition material between A and B with imitative fragments creating fleeting dissonant cross-​relations (measures 81–​94). The opening C section material returns in b♭ minor, followed by a transition back to the main theme. 182–​99 The coda uses the transition material heard in the middle of the C section, extending it to a final reference to A. The dynamic contrast heard at the end of the first movement is mirrored to end the sonata.

 

Opus 26

Biographical Snapshot Beethoven’s professional life in Vienna flourished, for the composer wrote in a letter to his friend Franz Gerhard Wegeler (1765–​1848), dated June 29, 1801: “My compositions bring me in a good deal; and I may say that I am offered more commissions than it is possible for me to carry out. Moreover, I can count on six or seven publishers, and even more, if I want them; people no longer come to an arrangement with me, I state my price and they pay.” Later in the same letter Beethoven revealed his distress at the first signs of hearing loss: “[B]‌but my ears continue to hum and buzz day and night. I must confess that I lead a miserable life. For almost two years I have ceased to attend any social functions, just because I find it impossible to say to people: I am deaf…. In order to give you some idea of this strange deafness, let me tell you that in the theatre I have to place myself quite close to the orchestra in order to understand what the actor is saying, and that at a distance I cannot hear the high notes of instruments or voices. As for the spoken voice, it is surprising that some people have never noticed my deafness; but since I have always been liable to fits of absent-​mindedness, they attribute my hardness of hearing to that. Sometimes too I can scarcely hear a person who speaks softly; I can hear sounds, it is true, but cannot make out the words. But if anyone shouts, I can’t bear it. Heaven knows what is to become of me.”1

Factual Information Sketches for this sonata date from 1801. The announcement of its publication, along with the two sonatas of the op.  27, was made by Giovanni Cappi (1765–​1815) on March 3, 1802. Cappi had been with the publisher Artaria when Beethoven’s op. 2 was published by that house. He started his own firm in 1792. The work is dedicated to Prince Karl von Lichnowsky (1761–​1814). (See the entry for op. 13   AND I:57–​62.

1

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for information about the prince.) In about 1800 the prince gave Beethoven a yearly stipend of six hundred gulden (thought to be about $2,000), support that remained in effect until at least 1805. This is the first piano sonata of Beethoven for which the autograph is extant.

Observations Structure

This is the first of three experimental sonatas, the other two being the op. 27, nos. 1 and 2. This work presents several important innovative concepts. (1) None of the movements is in sonata-​ allegro form, the usual form of the first movement being replaced by a theme and five variations. A notable predecessor of this structure is the K. 331 of Mozart. (2) The order of the inner movements is reversed from that seen in earlier works, a scherzo being presented as the second movement and the slow movement (a funeral march in this case) as the third. The reversal initiates a pattern that was followed by Frédéric Chopin (opp. 35 and 58), Alexander Scriabin (op. 23), Sergei Prokofiev (opp. 14, 82, and 103), Samuel Barber (op. 26), and others. (3) The composer added a programmatic element to the sonata in that the third movement is titled Funeral March on the Death of a Hero. This march was played at Beethoven’s funeral, March 29, 1827, in a b minor version orchestrated by the composer for an unrealized theatrical project. Several composers of the period wrote funeral marches with heroic references, including Luigi Cherubini (1760–​1842), François-​Joseph Gossec (1734–​1829), and Etienne-​Nicolas Méhul (1763–​1817). Perhaps such a focus was a spinoff of the French revolution. Other Beethoven works exhibit similar interest in heroic death: Cantata on the Death of Emperor Joseph II (1790), the Symphony no. 3 (“Eroica”), op. 55 (1803–​4), Christ on the Mount of Olives (1803–​4), and the incidental music to Goethe’s Egmont (1809–​10). Funeral marches later appear in the op. 35 of Chopin and the op. 6 of Scriabin (as a fourth movement).

Performance This is the first Beethoven sonata in which pedal indications appear, Indications at the ends of the first and fourth movements and in the trio of the funeral march. Possible Connections between Movements

All four movements open with themes whose first phrases end on the dominant. The second phrases of the first and third movements end on the dominant, whereas the second phrases of the second and fourth movements return to the tonic.

 

O pu s  2 6

151

The first and fourth movements give passing prominence to the secondary dominant seventh of the supertonic (F major with a minor seventh to b♭ minor): in the first movement this occurs at measure 17, the opening to the middle section of the theme; in the fourth movement it appears as the underlying harmony of the opening broken-​chord pattern. Also the second movement opens with the supertonic of the dominant, a different inflection of mode but still a sonority based on F. The first and third movements are connected by the use of a♭ minor, in the third variation of the first movement and as the key of the third. In both cases the melodic line is relatively static and uses a repeated-​note figure. First movement: A-​flat major—​Andante con Variazione—​3/​8—​Theme + 5 variations and a coda Theme

A thirty-​four measure theme is presented without repeats in an internal aaba pattern. This pattern is followed throughout the variations.

Variation One Measure(s)

Upbeat to 35–​68

A motive comprising arpeggios in rising thirty-​second notes followed by two eighth notes is the basis of this variation.

Upbeat to 69–​102

The first two variations present a “rhythmic crescendo.” (See op. 14, no. 2, second movement, for a description of this term.) This variation features patterns in thirty-​second notes in alternating hands.

Upbeat to 103–​36

The third variation is in the parallel minor (a♭ minor), the same key as the third movement. It is written with the formidable-​looking key signature of seven flats. The use of parallel minor for the third variation in a five-​variation set acting as the first movement of a sonata can also be seen in K. 331 of Mozart. Repeated sforzandi on the lowermost notes in the left hand of measures 111–​16 and 129–​34 create a serious, authoritative atmosphere.

Variation Two Measure(s)

Variation Three Measure(s)

 

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Variation Four Measure(s)

Upbeat to 137–​70

Graceful couplet figures consisting of three eight notes, the first two tied, form the basis of this variation. These consistently appear in contrasting ranges of the keyboard.

Upbeat to 171–​204

The final variation introduces a written-​out trill pattern, a device used in the last variation of the final movements of opp. 109 and 111. These written-​out trills attend a straightforward restatement of the theme with sixteenth-​note accompanying patterns in the left hand. The trill is thought to be a musical gesture that symbolizes transcendentalism, that expression being subtly suggested in this movement and more obvious in the later sonatas.

205-​19

A nondevelopmental coda consists of alternation between tonic and dominant harmonies. A pedal indication directs sustaining the sonority in measures 216–​19.

Variation Five Measure(s)

Second movement:  A-​flat major—​Scherzo da capo; Allegro molto—​3/​4—​lA|: B:||:C:||:D:||A|B|| Structure

The first A section is attended by a note from the composer directing that the section not be repeated. The segment is written with a varied repeat of the material. The trio is in D♭ major.

Third movement:  a-​flat minor—​Marche funebre sulla morte d’un Eroe—​4/​4—​ |A|:B:|:C:|A, coda Structure Measure(s)

Upbeat to 1–​16

The outer sections are through-​composed. The trio section is in two parts, each marked to be repeated. Opening in a♭ minor, the eight-​measure main theme closes in C♭ major, enharmonic to B major. A shift to the parallel minor (b minor) ushers in a restatement of the main theme, this time ending in D major.

 

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After a four-​measure transition, the main theme returns in the original key. A surprising shift to the parallel major (A♭ major) at measure 25 is short-​lived, the section closing in the minor key.

31–​38 (39) Tremolos that seem to imitate drumrolls are attended by pedal markings. The pedal releases are marked precisely and coincide in the autograph and the first edition. Some editions show small but significant alterations. The use of tremolos may have been influenced by the pianist Daniel Steibelt (1765–​1823), who was famous for the technique. Count Moritz von Fries (1777–​1826) arranged a competition between Beethoven and Steibelt in his Viennese home sometime around 1800. Upbeat The coda features an a♭ pedal point over anguished to 69–​75 diminished sonorities that resolve to A♭ major. (70–​76) Fourth movement: A-​flat major—​Allegro—​2/​4—​ABACAB, coda based on A Concept

Czerny believed that this movement was influenced by music of Johann Baptist Cramer (1771–​1858), who created a “great sensation” when he visited Vienna and played his three sonatas op. 23. Czerny pointed to the first of these, also in A♭ major, as having been influential.2 The movement is compact, presenting non-​stop sixteenth notes almost without interruption. The combination of a funeral march followed by a perpetual-​motion movement is one that Chopin used almost four decades later in the Op. 35 sonata, suggesting possible influence, although the last movements differ in mood.

Structure

  CZY, 38.

2

Free contrapuntal trade-​offs between the hands attend both the A and B sections. The two B sections are in the dominant and tonic respectively. The C section opens in c minor and is composed of two eight-​measure segments, the first marked to be repeated. The final return of A material serves as a coda. The final four measures are attended by a pedal marking.

 

 

The Opus 27 Set: Sonatas Like a Fantasy; no. 2 (“Moonlight”)

Biographical Snapshot Beethoven’s younger brother Carl (1774–​1815) took over negotiations with publishers and was effective in demanding and obtaining top prices for the composer’s works. Countess Giulietta Guicciardi (1784–​1856) began piano studies with Beethoven in 1801, and a romance ensued. On November 16, 1801, the composer wrote to his friend Franz Gerhard Wegeler: “My poor hearing haunted me like a ghost; and I avoided—​all human society. I seem to be a misanthrope and yet I am far from being one. This change has been brought about by a dear charming girl who loves me and whom I love. After two years I am again enjoying a few blissful moments; and for the first time I feel that—​marriage might bring me happiness. Unfortunately she is not of my class—​and at the moment—​I certainly could not marry—​I must still bustle about a good deal.”1 In 1803 Giulietta married Count Wenzel Robert Gallenberg (1783–​1839), and the couple took up residence in Italy. Years later, in a conversation book dated February 4, 1823, Beethoven recalled the romance, speaking to Anton Schindler in French, possibly so as not to be understood by eavesdroppers: “I was loved by her, and more than her husband ever was … and she sought me weeping, but I rejected her … If I had wished to give the strength of my life to that life, what would have remained for the nobler, the better?”2

Factual Information The op. 27 set was announced, along with the op. 26, by Giovanni Cappi on March 3, 1802 (for information about Cappi, see op. 26.) Each sonata bears its own dedication, as noted below.   AND I:67.   Karl-​Heinz Köhler et al., eds., Ludwig van Beethoven’s Konversations-​hefte (Leipzig: VEB Deutscher Verlag für Musik, 1968–​2002), 2: 365–​66. 1 2

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Observations Concept

Both sonatas bear the description “sonata quasi una fantasia” (sonata like a fantasia). Each has its irregularities, as noted below, the pair joining the op. 26 as experimental works.

No. 1 Factual Information This work was dedicated to Princess Josephine von Liechtenstein (1775–​1848). She was born Countess Josephine Sophie zu Fürstenberg-​Wetra and in 1792 married Prince Johann Joseph von Liechtenstein (1760–​1836), a well-​known art collector and a field marshal in the imperial army. Not much is known of Beethoven’s acquaintance with the princess other than a letter dated September, 1805 (apparently undelivered), in which the composer asks for financial assistance for his friend and pupil Ferdinand Ries.

Observations Structure

As in the op. 26, there is no sonata-​allegro structure in this work. The composer wrote “attaca” at the ends of the first, second, and third movements, thus indicating a continuous flow for the sonata. Moreover the third movement is joined to the fourth by a written-​ out cadenza. As in the op. 26, the second movement is scherzo-​like and the third serves as the slow movement. At the end of the fourth movement, eight measures from the slow movement return, thus initiating cyclic return for the first time in the sonatas. Perhaps coincidentally, the cyclic return in the Symphony no. 5, op. 67 (1807–​8) is also one in which a portion of the third movement returns in the final movement. For the first time in the sonatas, the last movement is the most extended one, becoming the focal point for the work, rather than the first movement. Such a shift can also be observed clearly in the opp. 27, no. 2, 101, 109, and 110 and arguably in opp. 106 and 111.

Possible Connections between Movements

The first, third, and fourth movements all open with phrases that place notes from the tonic triad on strong beats. In the first movement the line moves from the fifth degree of the scale to the third, in the third movement (in A♭ major) from the third degree to the root, and in the fourth from an upbeat on the fifth degree to the

 

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root, back to the fifth (with a passing submediant), and then to the third (with ornamental passing tones). The first and fourth movements present similar scale patterns as an answer to opening motives, in the first movement at measures 1–​4 and in the fourth at measures 3–​4 and 7–​8. The C major section of the first movement presents an arpeggio figure that rises to g′′ (measures 39–​40). The second movement opens with a broken chord in c minor that rises to the same note (measures 1-​3). The cyclic relationship between the third and fourth movements has already been noted. First movement: E-​flat major—​Andante; Allegro; Andante—​4/​4 (alla breve); 6/​8; 4/​4 (alla breve)​—​ABA, coda Structure Measure(s) 1–​8 9–​20 (10–​22)

The A and B sections are subdivided into smaller parts, as noted below. Two sets of four measures in E♭ major are each marked to be repeated, the second set with first and second endings. A second idea built on the same rhythm is in E♭ major for the first four measures. Then four measures open in C major and modulate back to E♭ major, this set being repeated an octave higher.

Upbeat to 21–​36 (23–​38)

The section returns to the opening set of eight measures, but here the repeats are written out in order to allow for slight variations.

Upbeat to 37–​62 (39–​64)

The contrasting middle section introduces a key signature change to C major, a meter change to 6/​8, and a tempo change to Allegro. The first eight measures are marked to be repeated. The repeat for the second set of eight measures is written out to include an extended ending that modulates back to E♭ major.

63–​78 (65–​80) 79–​86 (81–​88)

The opening section returns with written-​out repeats in order to effect even more figural variation. A short coda is based on dominant-​seventh to tonic cadences.

 

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Second movement:  c minor—​Allegro molto e vivace—​3/​4—​|:A:|:B:||:C:|:D:| |AA′B′| Structure

This scherzo-​like movement is in a modified minuet and trio form, the da capo being written out in order to introduce a syncopated variation of the original statement in the written-​out repeat of the first part. There is also a twelve-​measure extension of the second part that cadences in C major. First and second endings attend the sections marked to be repeated. The C and D sections are in A♭ major.

Third movement: A-​flat major—​Adagio con espressione—​3/​4—​ABA, cadenza Structure

Each ABA section is eight measures long. The last measure of the final A section initiates the cadenza, which is written in the framework of two additional measures.

Measure(s) 8–​16

The half-​cadence at the end of the first section is sustained so that the B section is in the dominant (E♭ major). An arching line in syncopated octaves provides a climactic moment (measures 13–​16).

24–​26 The cadenza presents a rapid rising scale followed by a written-​out trill in one-​hundred-​twenty-​eighth notes and sixty-​fourth notes. A dominant seventh chord in the home key of the sonata (E♭ major) is attended by a fermata, a sixteenth-​ note cadenza written as grace notes, and a final fermata. The composer directs “Attaca subito l’Allegro vivace.” Fourth movement:  E-​flat major—​Allegro vivace—​2/​4—​ABACAB/​third movement/​coda Structure

The two B sections are in the dominant and tonic respectively, and the C section is a development of A. Thus the structure of the movement would be classified as sonata allegro were it not for the return of A between B and C.

Measure(s) 256 (starting a recount at the bginning of the fourth movement)

The return of the third-​movement theme is no longer in A♭ major, but rather in E♭ major, home key of the sonata. Curiously, it is attended by the marking “Tempo I.” This marking has led to speculation that the A♭ section, herein referred to as the third movement, should be regarded as an introduction to the final movement rather than as a separate movement, thus compromising the perception that the sonata is truly cyclic. This perception might regard the arrangement as an early example of

 

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procedures used in the late sonatas opp. 101, 106, and 110, wherein last movements have introductions (and in the case of the op. 101, an introduction drawn from earlier material). However, the case for regarding the work as one of four movements with a cyclic return is supported by the “attaca” at the end of the A♭ section, a direction seen between each of the earlier movements, as well as the aforementioned key change. The section ends with another written-​out cadenza (measures 263–​65). 266–​85

The coda is marked “presto” and presents material that likely is drawn from the first theme of the movement.

No. 2 Factual Information This work is dedicated to Countess Giulietta Guicchiardi. In an early biography of the composer, Anton Felix Schindler claimed she was the object of the famous Immortal Beloved love letter found among the composer’s effects, but later research discredited this claim. The well-​known “Moonlight” nickname probably came from an account written in 1832 after the composer’s death by the poet-​musician Heinrich Friedrich Rellstab (1799–​1860). He wrote of the first movement that it was “a boat passing the wild scenery of Lake Lucerne in the moonlight.”3 The autograph of this work is extant except for the first and last pages.

Observations Concept

The composer joins the first and second movements with the indication “attaca subito il seguente,” but there is no such indication between the second and third movements. As in the first sonata of the set, the most extended movement is the final one, rather than the first. Even so, the celebrated first movement is prophetic in that it sustains a single mood throughout, rendering emotional effect more important than structural clarity, an aesthetic associated with nineteenth-​century Romanticism.

  Wilhelm von Lenz, Beethoven et ses trois styles (1852; Paris: Gustave Legouix, 1909), 199.

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Possible Connections between Movements

The first and third movements are both based on a broken c♯ minor triad. Both highlight the fifth of the scale, g♯, the first movement using that pitch as the opening note of the first theme, the third movement presenting arpeggios climaxing on chords with that note on top. Although the second movement, in D♭ major, opens with a phrase in the dominant, it, too, culminates on the fifth of the scale. The first and third movements have the same melodic fragment (upbeat to measures 16–​19 and measures 29–​32 respectively). The development sections of the first and third movements center around f ♯ minor.

First movement:  c-​sharp minor—​Adagio sosenuto—​4/​4 (alla breve)—​Sonata-​ Allegro, no repeats, coda

Observations Structure

The underlying sonata-​allegro pattern unfolds with themes made up of fragments and unusual key relationships. Presenting structure seems less important than the mood established by the consistent triplet figuration throughout and the pedal indications.

Performance Indications

The composer directs that “this piece should be played throughout with the greatest delicacy and without dampers.” He emphasizes in a second note: “always pianissimo and without dampers.” These directions have led to speculation as to how best to carry them out. Many believe that the composer wanted a blurred, atmospheric effect, possible on period pianos, on which the sound dissipated rapidly. However, holding the damper pedal down on the more sonorous modern piano throughout the movement results in harmonic blurring that would seem incompatible with today’s aesthetic standards. Many performers experiment with half-​damping or delayed pedal changes. On the other hand, Beethoven’s student Czerny instructed that the “prescribed pedal must be re-​employed at each note in the bass….”4

  CZY, 49.

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Exposition Measure(s)

1–​4

The R.H. triplet figure is established in this introduction.

Upbeat to 5–​14

The first theme phrase is announced twice, the first opening in c♯ minor and modulating to E major, the second opening in e minor and modulating to b minor.

Upbeat to 16–​23

The second theme phrase is also announced twice, opening both times with a B major sonority that seems to function as an unresolved dominant in e minor. The second phrase is extended to close the exposition with a cadence in f♯ minor.

Development Measure(s)

Upbeat 24–​27

The opening theme opens in f♯ minor and is extended.

28–​31

A three-​note fragment is presented, possibly derived from the shape of the second theme fragment in the exposition.

32–​42

Broken chords, diminished seventh and tonic, unfold.

37–​42

A re-​transition presents a melodic fragment with the same rhythm as the second theme of the exposition. Some details of this passage have generated controversy, for the stemming in measure 37 is puzzling, and the phrase lengths in 37, 38, and 39 seem inconsistent.

Recapitulation Measure(s)

Upbeat to 52–​6 0

Upbeat to 61–​69

The second theme fragment opens in C♯ major. It seems to function as an unresolved dominant in f♯ minor, but it moves to the home key as the section ends. A coda places the first theme fragment in the left hand and brings the movement to a quiet close.

 

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Second movement:  D-​flat major—​Allegretto—​3/​4—​Minuet and Trio da capo |A|:B:||:C:|:D:||A|B|| Structure

This movement is another example of the composer’s using a minuet and trio pattern without designating it either a minuet and trio or a scherzo. Similar procedures occur in the opp. 7 (3); 10, no. 2 (2); 14, no. 1 (2); 27, no. 1 (2); 101 (2, duple meter, designated a march); and 110 (2, duple meter).

Measure(s) Upbeat to The composer directs that this section not be repeated, 1–​16 because the repeat is written out, the first eight measures being varied as they are repeated. Upbeat to The trio section, also in D♭, features syncopated octaves in 37–​6 0 the right hand. Third movement:  c-​sharp minor—​Presto agitato—​4/​4—​Sonata-​Allegro, coda, repeat exposition Exposition Measure(s) 1–​2

21–​65

Development Measure(s)

The rising c♯ minor arpeggio figure culminates in two R.H. chords attended by both staccato markings and a pedal indication. These marks are consistent for this passage throughout the movement. The second theme area is in the dominant minor (g♯ minor),

a relationship that exists in other Beethoven sonatas in minor keys: opp. 2, no. 1 (4); 31, no. 2 (1 and 3); 57 (3); and 90 (1).

65–​70 The first theme is opens in C♯ major, a harmony that (66–​71) functions as the dominant in f ♯ minor. 71–​86 The second theme is presented in f♯ minor and e minor (72–​87) and then extended to arrive at the dominant of the home key (c♯ minor).

 

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87–​101 The re-​transition unfolds over a dominant pedal (88–​102) point, descendin staccato chords leading to a passing fragmented segments related to the closing section of the exposition at measures 94–​9 9 (95–​100). Articulation in measures 91–93 (92–94) is often compared with that in measure 96 (97) in the autograph, for this passage may be an example of the composer’s distinguishing between the wedge and the dot. In this example the dot in measure 96 (97) is coupled with a slur, creating a portato touch. Interesting as this passage is, such comparison has not led to a clear-​cut resolution of the overall problem of deciphering which marks are dots and which are wedges in Beethoven’s autographs.

Recapitulation Measure(s)

102–​159 (103–​160)

159–​66 (160–​67)

167–​89 (168–​9 0)

190–​200 (191–​201)

All material is presented in the recapitulation, although the first theme is truncated. The second theme area is in the home key (c♯ minor). An unexpected modulation to f♯ minor at measures 158–59 (159–​6 0) paves the way for the coda, the most extended and dramatic in the sonatas thus far. A statement of the first theme in f♯ minor is

interrupted by two diminished seventh arpeggios, each attended by a fermata. Beethoven’s sensitivity to pedal color is noteworthy: the autograph indicates con sordino (with dampers) in measures 163–​64 (164–​65) but senza sordino in measures 165–​66 (166–​67). This differentiation does not appear in the first edition or in many later editions. The second theme unfolds in c♯ minor and is extended with cadenza-​like passage work that culminates on a dominant ninth chord with a fermata. A cadenza written in small notes leads to two measures of whole notes marked Adagio.

A final recalling of the closing theme is followed by forte arpeggios and fortissimo closing chords to bring this sonata to a brilliant close.

 

 

Opus 28 (“Pastoral”) Biographical Snapshot In April 1802 Beethoven moved to the village of Heiligenstadt, two miles north of Vienna, and remained there until October. The retreat was taken on the advice of his doctor, who thought the country air might alleviate encroaching deafness. The composer rarely went into Vienna during this period, and the isolation proved only to intensify his depression. On October 6 he drafted a letter to his brothers in which he contemplated suicide. This document was found among his effects after his death. The well-​known Heiligenstadt Testament is a moving, extremely personal expression that reveals the depth of the composer’s struggle to overcome his affliction and move on with his life.

Factual Information Publication of the op. 28 was announced on August 4, 1802, by the Bureau d’arts et d’industrie, a publishing house established earlier that year. The firm published several of Beethoven’s works between 1802 and 1808. It was taken over by S. A. Steiner & Co. in 1823. Sketches and the autograph of this work are extant, and a facsimile of this material was published by Beethoven-​Haus in Bonn in 1996. The work is dedicated to Joseph Edlen von Sonnenfels (1732–​1817), an enlightened figure in governmental affairs, philanthropist, and confidant of Emperor Joseph II. The dedication apparently was not inspired by personal friendship or a result of patronage, but rather was a tribute to Sonnenfel’s ideals as a public figure. The designation “Sonate pastorale” appeared first in a publication by the London firm Broderip & Wilkinson, probably around 1805. It is thus quite possible that the composer knew of the nickname. Its use was reinforced in an 1838 publication by the Hamburg publisher August Cranz.

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Observations Concept

This work conforms to the four-​movement pattern established by the Op. 2 set, op. 7, op. 10, no. 3, and op. 22.

Possible Connections etween Movements

The first and fourth movements begin with an accompaniment pattern of repeated tonic notes in the bass, although the fourth movement incorporates a rising line into the pattern. The opening melodic lines of both movements start on the fifth of the scale and move downward. A closely related pattern can be observed in the second movement as well, where the opening melody leaps to the fifth of the scale and moves downward. Similarly, the theme of the b minor trio of the third movement enters on the fifth of its scale and moves downward.

First movement: D major—​Allegro—​3/​4—​Sonata-​Allegro, coda, repeat exposition Exposition Measure(s) 1–​10

63–​86

This sonata is the first of five of the composer’s piano sonatas that open with a non-​tonic sonority. Here a secondary dominant moves to the subdominant of the home key (G major), then to the home key (D major). Other sonatas in which non-​tonic openings occur are opp. 31, nos. 2 and 3, 101, and 111. Similarly, the second theme opens with the secondary dominant of the expected key, this time moving to the submediant (f♯ minor), resolving to the supertonic (b minor), and then to a cadence in the expected dominant of the sonata (A major). A second phrase returns to the secondary dominant sonority (C♯ major) and delays movement toward A major until measures 87–​91, at which point extended phrases in that key unfold.

Upbeat to A ländler-​like closing section is rooted in A major. 136–​63 (165)

Development Measure(s)

165–​82 (166–​83)

The first theme is stated in G major, then, with small variations, in g minor.

 

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183–​98 (184–​99)

The first theme is fragmented, its final four measures unfolding in g and d minor against accompanying eighth-​note scales.

199–​256 (200–​257)

The first theme is further fragmented, this time only the rhythmic figure of the final two measures unfolding kaleidoscopically in d minor, a minor, e minor, and b minor, finally coming to rest after descending chords in F♯ major. The prominence of F♯ major and its relation to the recapitulation’s return to D major is parallel to the prominence of C♯ major in the second theme area of the exposition, where its relationship was to A major, the dominant.

Upbeat to 257–​68 (258–​69)

A brief return of the closing section from the exposition in B major, then in b minor, acts as a re-​transition to the recapitulation.

Recapitulation Measure(s)

269–​438 (270–​439)

The musical materials are consistent with their appearances in the exposition, the second theme area progressions settling in the tonic.

439–​61 (440–​62)

A short coda presents the opening phrase of the first theme with its fragmented final two measures, recalling the fragmentation of the development section, but now remaining in D major.

Second movement: d minor—​Andante—​2/​4—​Modified minuet and trio |:A:|:B: ||:C:|:D:||AA′BB′|, coda Measure(s) 1–​8 (9)

23–​38 (25–​42)

The opening theme features a L. H. accompaniment in staccato sixteenth notes, a pizzicato effect that was used earlier in the op. 2, no. 2 (2) and the middle section of the op. 7 (3). The first section ends in a minor. The “trio” section is in D major, its first part also ending in the dominant. It picks up the staccato-​note idea from the main theme and builds on it, adding triplet figures in the right hand. There is a text issue at

 

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measures 26, 30, and 30a (28, 32, 33) on the second sixteenth note of the second beat of each measure. Beethoven’s autograph shows markings that are probably accents, but because they are somewhat large, the engraver of the first edition interpreted them as decrescendo marks. Current editions vary. 47–​54 (51–​58) The written-​out repeats of the A and B sections and 69–​82 include transformation of the opening-​theme material (73–​86) into thirty-​second-​note passage work. 83–​99 (87–​103)

The coda recalls elements of both the first theme and the “trio” theme. The turn in measure 98 (102) shows both a natural and a sharp sign beneath it. Editors have handled this ambiguity in different ways.

Third movement:  D major—​Allegro vivace—​3/​4—​Minuet and Trio da capo |A|:B:||:C:|D||A|B| Measure(s) 1–​32

The repeat is written out in the first A section in order to effect a change of texture and dynamics.

79–​94 The repeat is written out in the D section in order to effect a different dynamic pattern. Fourth movement: D major—​Allegro ma non troppo—​6/​8—​ABACABA coda Structure

The B sections are in the dominant and the tonic respectively. The final appearance of A opens in G major and is shortened and varied to set up the tempo change for the final section.

Measure(s) Upbeat to 1–​28

The character of the opening theme may be the source of the nickname “Pastorale” owing to its drone bass and easygoing ländler-​like melody. A transition made up of arpeggios leads to the first B section.

Upbeat The B section is imitative, presenting a short motive to 29–​49 in different voice levels. It closes with a broken octave transition (measures 43–​49).

 

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Upbeats The C section consists of an opening idea that extends the to 68–​113 rhythmic pattern of the A theme and a more lyrical section written in different voice levels that becomes thicker in texture with each repetition (measures 79–​100). The section closes with a recall of the broken octave closing of the B section (measures 101–​13). Upbeat to A section marked più allegro quasi presto ushers in 193–​210 dazzling R.H. passage work over the drone bass from the A theme, now in octaves. This section acts as a coda to this movement, providing a brilliant ending for the work, as well as a technical challenge for the performer.

 

 

The Opus 31 Set: no. 2 (“Tempest”); no. 3 ( “Hunt”)

Biographical Snapshot Czerny reported that Beethoven stated after writing the op. 28: “I am not very well satisfied with the works I have thus far done. From this day on I shall take a new way.”1 An important concert of Beethoven’s works took place at the Theater an der Wien, Tuesday, April 5, 1802. The program consisted of the Symphony no. 2, op. 36, the Piano Concerto no. 3, op. 37, and the oratorio Christus am Oelberge (revised two years later and published as op. 85). Reviews were conflicting, but the well-​ attended concert was a great financial success. There is evidence that the composer was aware of the concordat that Napoleon signed with Pope Pius VII, a document that restored the property and influence of the Catholic Church after the ravages of the French Revolution. During this time Beethoven admired Napoleon as a hero who fought for the poor and who had opposed the oppression of French royalty. Later Beethoven withdrew his approval as Napoleon’s military initiatives began to threaten Vienna.

Factual Information Beethoven received a request from the Zurich publisher Hans Georg Nägeli (1773–​ 1836) for three sonatas to be included in a project titled Répertoire des Clavincinistes. The composer negotiated a fee and began to write the op. 31 set. Nägeli published the first two sonatas in the spring of 1803 without having sent proofs to the composer. Beethoven found so many errors in them (reportedly about eighty) that he immediately instructed his brother Carl to send them to the Bonn publisher Nikolaus Simrock (1751–​1832), who published a “corrected edition” a few months   CZY, 13.

1

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later. Giovanni Cappi published all three sonatas together for the first time in 1805 (erroneously designating them op. 29). These early editions differ in many details. Scholars believe that all three may contain errors, the Simrock and Cappi editions having copied some of the Nägeli mistakes and added more of their own, possibly owing to haste. There are no autographs for these sonatas. Sketches suggest that the op. 31, no. 2, was written first and that no. 1 was begun as a string quartet. There is no substantiated dedication. The French musicologist Jacques Gabriel Prod’homme (1871–​1956) claimed that the Cappi edition was dedicated to Countess Anna Margarete von Browne, wife of Count Johann Georg von Browne-​Camus. (See the op. 10 dedication information for more details.)

No. 1 Observations Concept

The first and third movements of this work are filled with humor effected by means of rests, sforzandi, dynamic contrasts, and prolonged cadences. The second movement is unique among the sonatas for its barcarole-​like spirit and elaborate ornamentation. Unfortunately, this sonata has been dismissed by some early writers as inferior, possibly because they did not recognize the humor of the outer movements or the elegance of the middle one.

Possible Connections between Movements

The first, second, and third movements all open with melodic lines that move toward the note g′.

First Movement:  G major—​Allegro vivace—​2/​4—​Sonata-​Allegro, coda, repeat exposition Exposition Measure(s) Upbeat to 1–​64

The opening theme comprises two elements, a descending scale-​like motive and chords alternating between the hands. It is stated in G major, then immediately occurs in F major. This relationship is often commented on in the opening of the op. 53 but overlooked in this sonata. It is possible that the rhythmic juxtaposition of chords in this theme (upbeats to measures 4, 6, etc.), as well as the prolonged dominant arpeggios and fermata (measures 39–​45), are meant to be humorous.

 

The O p u s 3 1  Se t

66–​113

173

The second theme and its following elaboration alternate between B major and b minor, the exposition coming to rest in the minor mode. As in the observation about the key relationships of the first theme, the use of the mediant as a key for the second theme area is often noted in the op. 53 but overlooked in this work. The juxtaposing of G major and B major can also be noted in the Piano Concerto no. 4, op. 58, in the opening of the first movement.

Development Measure(s)

114–​34

The alternating chords of the first theme open in G major and progress through c minor and F major, coming to rest in B♭ major.

134–​62 The scale-​like figure from the first theme is extended into more elaborate passage work and unfolds in B♭ major, c minor, and d minor.

162–​93 The dominant arpeggios from the exposition are recalled and are followed by more dominant preparation using the rhythm associated with the alternating chords and adding a minor ninth starting at measure 182.

Recapitulation Measure(s)

218–​33

The opening segment of the second theme area alternates between E major—​e minor.

234–​79

The second theme arrives in the home key, which becomes the basis for the material used in repeating the remaining material heard in the exposition.

Upbeat to 280–​95

The coda opens with the first theme’s scale-​like passage, which is extended into the dominant arpeggios.

Upbeat to 296–​325

Clever use of thematic fragments, rests, and dynamic contrasts combine to create a teasing, humorous close to this movement, one that often elicits chuckles from audiences.

 

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174

Second movement: C major—​Adagio grazioso—​9/​8—​ABA, coda Concept

This movement features elaborate ornamental passage work with cadenzas, trills, and double-​note (guitar-​like) accompaniments. The time signature may suggest the Venetian gondolier music known as the barcarole, a style that later was incorporated into piano pieces by Mendelssohn, Chopin, Poulenc, Bartók, and others.

Structure

Each A section is made up of an internal aba arrangement. The return of the larger A section after the B section is more highly decorated than its initial statement.

Measure(s) 35–​64

The B section opens with nonstop sixteenth notes through measure 53, first in c minor and then in A♭ major. A less active transition follows (measures 53–​64), but the sixteenth-​ note activity returns at the A section, now appearing as an accompaniment to the A theme (measure 65).

99–​119 The coda continues to feature decoration, opening with multiple trills. A reference to the opening phrase of the A theme appears in the left hand at measure 108. Third movement:  G major—​Rondo:  Allegretto—​4/​4 (alla breve)—​ABACABA, coda Structure

Measure(s)

The composer calls this movement a rondo, but it is related to a sonata-​allegro, for the two B sections are in the dominant and the tonic respectively, the C section develops the A theme, and the final return of A is fragmented and segues into the coda. This arrangement recalls that of the final movement of the op. 27, no. 1. Upbeat to 83–​129

The development of the A theme moves kaleidoscopically through g minor, c minor, E♭ major, c minor, f minor, b♭ minor, A♭ major, and g minor, using fragmentation, imitation, and extension.

Upbeat to 207–​24

An additional section based on material from A prepares the way for the final return of A. It is somewhat developmental.

Upbeat to 225–​41

The last appearance of the A theme is in a fragmented form with separated phrases, tempo changes, and lengthy rests.

 

The O p u s 3 1  Se t

241–​75

175

The final coda moves to a presto tempo based on the opening of the A theme. As in the coda of the first movement, staccato chords, rests, and dynamics generate humor.

No. 2 Factual Information The nickname “Tempest” came from Anton Felix Schindler (1795–​1864), a Moravian violinist who was Beethoven’s household helper in the 1820s, when the composer needed assistance owing to his hearing impairment. After hearing a performance of this sonata and the op. 57, Schindler reported that he asked of the composer, “Give me the key to these sonatas,” and Beethoven replied, “Just read Shakespeare’s Tempest.”2 Although Schindler’s account mentions two sonatas, the nickname “Tempest” was attached to this one only. Schindler is reputed to have aggrandized his importance in the composer’s life in the biography he wrote of Beethoven (1840, revised 1860). Contemporaries denounced Schindler’s reporting as inaccurate. Moreover, recent research found that Schindler falsified entries in Beethoven’s conversation books.3

Observation Possible Connections between Movements

The first and second movements both open with slow arpeggios, followed by a rising motivic idea in measures 1 and 2 in the first movement and in measure 2 in the second. The rising motive of the first movement ends on the fifth of the scale; the rising motive of the second movement goes to the third of its key; the opening motive of the third movement moves to the tonic on the first downbeat. These motives sound similar.

  Anton Felix Schindler, Beethoven as I Knew Him, ed. Donald W. McArdle, trans. Constance S. Jolly (Mineola, New York, Dover, 1996), 406. 3   For an overview of the research regading the falsification of conversation books, see Nicholas Marston’s article “Conversation Books” in The Beethoven Compendium, ed. Barry Cooper (London: Thames & Hudson, 1991), 164–​7. 2

 

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176

First movement:  d minor—​Largo/​Allegro—​4/​4 (alla breve)—​Sonata-​Allegro, repeat exposition Concept

The slow opening and it appearance throughout the movement recall the first movement of the op. 13, although in this work the slow opening is much shorter and states a motive that becomes an integral part of the first theme wherever it is used.

Exposition Measure(s) 1–​41

The first theme consists of two motivic ideas. The first a rising chord outline that appears in a Largo tempo (measures 1–​2 and 7–​8), slowly rolled chords initiating a four-​note motive. This rising chord motive reappears in the Allegro section starting at measures 21–​22, here without introductory arpeggios. The second motive comprises a rapid two-​note figure in eighth notes in the Allegro tempo (starting at the upbeat to measure 3).

41–​54 The second theme area opens in the dominant minor, being linked to the second motive of the first theme by its use of a two-​note figure in eighth notes, albeit in a different pattern. 55–​92 A new section in a minor acts to bring the exposition to a close. After opening with syncopated chord cadences, it continues with the hands trading material, one hand playing eight-​note patterns, the other playing two-​note slurs and longer sustained lines. Development Measure(s)

93–​98 (97–​102)

The broken-​chord arpeggios heard in the opening return, now more elaborate and written as grace notes. They move from the second inversion of D major through an inversion of a diminished triad on D♯ to the second inversion of F♯ major, each arpeggio culminating in the restatement of the four-​note motive prominent in the exposition.

99–​121 (103–​25)

The four-​note motive in its Allegro form provides the basis of this section opening in f ♯ minor, moving to outline tonic chords in b minor, G major, C major, A major, and d minor, and coming to rest on the dominant of the home key.

 

The O p u s 3 1  Se t

121–​42 (125–​46)

Recapitulation

Measure(s)

177

This section functions as a transition to the recapitulation, unfolding in an eight-​note pattern of thirds that decorate dominant harmony and coming to rest with descending whole-​note chords and a descending monophonic line.

The recapitulation is unusual in that much of the material is rewritten, more so than in any other of the composer’s piano sonatas to this point. 143–​48 (147–​52) and 153–​58 (157–​62)

The motives that open the movement are each extended with single-​line recitatives. These are marked to be pedaled in all early sources. Blurring of the line results, especially on today’s pianos. Some editors provide alternative pedaling, and some recommend half-​damping or half-​pedaling. Hearsay evidence can be traced through five parties that the composer commented that the passage should sound like a voice in a vault.

155 (159)

The last note in this measure, a sixteenth, is in dispute. Early editions print D♭, but it is changed to a C in an extant copy given as a gift by the composer. Thus it is possible that Beethoven himself made the change.

159–​70 (163–​74)

There is no counterpart in the exposition for this agitated passage. It presents chords and arpeggio-​ like passage work outlining cadences in f♯ minor, g minor, and diminished seventh chords leading to the second theme area.

219–​28 (223–​32)

There is no significant coda, but the closing measures extend the d minor sonority with chords and L.H. arpeggios, once again invoking the use of the damper pedal.

 

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178

Second movement:  B-​flat major—​Adagio—​3/​4—​Sonata-​Allegro without development, coda, no repeats Structure

The sonata allegro-​structure without development is sometimes termed “truncated” sonataallegro. The structure also occurs in the second movements of op. 2, no. 1, op. 10, no. 1, and (with a slight modification) in op. 81a. In this movement the end of the exposition is at measure 42; the recapitulation begins at measure 43.

Measure(s) 17–​30, 38–​42, 59–​72, and 80–​89

This material acts as a transition to the second theme, moving to the dominant in the exposition. It is of considerable significance in the overall movement, however, owing to its length, its tension, and the striking “drumroll” triplets in the lower register of the keyboard. The material returns to function as a closing section to both the exposition and the recapitulation.

Upbeat to 31–​37 The second theme appears as expected in the and upbeat to dominant and the tonic. 73–​80 51–​59

This portion of the recapitulation is varied with the inclusion of a thirty-​second-​note arpeggio accompaniment. Note the similarity with the recapitulation of the second movement of the op. 2, no. 1, where part of the reappearance of the first theme is also more elaborate.

89–​103

This coda uses the opening motivic figure of the first theme, extending it slightly. The final measure is noteworthy for its range and thin texture, suggesting orchestral coloration.

Third movement:  d minor—​Allegretto—​3/​8—​Sonata-​Allegro, coda, repeat exposition Concept

Although cast in sonata-​allegro form, this movement unfolds in perpetual motion using sixteenth-​note melodies or accompaniments almost without interruption. In this regard its perpetual motion is akin to that of the final movement of the op. 26.

 

The O p u s 3 1  Se t

179

Exposition Measure(s)

43–​94

The second theme area is in the dominant minor, a minor. This relationship also occurs in the opp. 2, no. 1 (4); 27, no. 2 (3); and 57 (3), and op. 90 (1).

Development Measure(s)

95–​215

The development is based solely on opening theme figuration. It moves through g minor, a minor, diminished sevenths that resolve to d minor, c minor, b♭ minor, and G♭ major, restating the theme in b♭ minor, and finally moving to a dominant preparation for the recapitulation.

Recapitulation Measure(s)

251–​271 319–​399

A “turnaround” touches upon b♭ minor, f minor, c minor, and g minor. A lengthy coda based on the first theme recalls the opening of the development section, settles into a restatement of the first theme marked fortissimo (upbeat to measure 351), and extends the theme’s closing with cadence figuration.

No. 3 Observations Structure

This is the only four-​movement piano sonata of Beethoven in which three movements are in sonata-​allegro form with full development sections. Four years later the Symphony no. 4, op. 60, used that structure for all four movements. There is no slow movement, the third movement, a minuet and trio, being the only movement that is not lively.

 

The Sonata s

180

Nickname

This sonata bears the nickname “The Hunt” in some quarters. Its origin is uncertain. The name may have been suggested by the opening motive, which could sound like a call to the hunt to some listeners, or by the energy of the final movement, which might suggest the chase.

Possible Connections between Movements

The first and fourth movements both open with motives that set the tonic six-​four as their goals (measures 6 and 4 respectively) and then move to a tonic in root position (measures 8 and 6).

First movement:  E-​flat major—​Allegro—​3/​4—​Sonata-​Allegro, coda, repeat exposition Exposition Measure(s) 1–​45

The first theme is constructed from its opening sonority, the first inversion of a supertonic seventh chord, II6-​5. Its hesitant progression to the tonic six-​four of the home key appears here, in the opening of the development section, in the recapitulation, in and the coda. The other piano sonatas of Beethoven that open with non-​tonic sonorities are the opp. 28, 31, no. 2, 101, and 111.

Upbeat to The second theme stays close to the dominant and features 46–​82 a measured cadenza (measures 53–​56) and a series of cadences decorated with trills (measures 64–​72), a gesture possibly borrowed from the first theme (measures 22–​23). 83–​88

The closing theme is hardly more than a cadence, but its falling sixth vaguely recalls the falling fifth of the opening theme.

Development Measure(s)

89–​137 The entire development is based on first-​theme material, opening with the same figure but modulating to c minor (89–​9 4), then incorporating other first-​theme material, including the trill figure, and moving to C major (measure 101–4), F major (measure 116), b♭ minor (measure 124), E♭ major (measure 126), and f minor (measure 128), the last sonority used as the transition to the sonority that opens the recapitulation.

 

The O p u s 3 1  Se t

Recapitulation

181

All exposition material is recapitulated in a normal fashion, with the expected tonic serving the second theme area. 220–​53

The coda brings back the opening gesture, seemingly to open in A♭, but progressing through a series of chromatic seventh chords to arrive on the home key tonic 6-​4 once again, this arrival being reiterated. The right hand of the final cadence of the movement is marked piano in the Nägeli first edition but forte in Simrock.

Second movement: A-​flat major—​Allegretto vivace—​2/​4—​Sonata-​Allegro, repeat exposition

Observation Structure

The composer uses the term “scherzo” to describe the spirit of this movement. It is, however, in sonata-​allegro form, rather than minuet and trio. Applying the term to this movement is appropriate, its joviality generated by the staccato notes used in all sections. The only other time in the sonatas this term is divorced from the minuet and trio structure is in the final movement of the op. 14, no. 2.

Exposition Measure(s)

1–​34

Staccato notes serve as the accompaniment to the opening theme, these more rapid than those previously noted in the opp. 2, no. 2 (2) and no. 3 (2, middle section) and 28 (2). The forward motion is interrupted by hesitant, teasing passages carrying a ritard indication (upbeat to measures 14–​15 and 33–​3 4).

Upbeat to 35–​49

The second theme is announced in the surprising key of F major, then moves to B♭ major, and finally the expected dominant (E♭ major). Staccato notes abound in both hands.

50–​63

A closing theme features staccato double notes as an accompaniment to staccato phrase fragments in the right hand.

 

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182

Development Measure(s)

64–​82 (66–​84)

83–​105 (85–​107)

The first theme opens in F major, followed by a part of the second theme that moves through b♭ minor and c minor.

The first theme returns in C major and is supplemented by an ornament-​like figure in sixty-​fourth notes at measures 90–​95 (92–​97) before setting up the dominant sonority in preparation for the recapitulation.

Recapitulation Measure(s)

Upbeat to 140–​55 The second theme enters in the surprising key (142–​57) of G♭ major. It moves to E♭ major, which serves as the dominant to bring the movement back to the home key (A♭ major).

Third movement:  E-​flat major—​Moderato e grazioso—​3/​4 Minuet and Trio ||:A:|:B:||:C:|:D:||:A:|:B:||, coda Structure

Measure(s)

Upbeat to 17–​38 (20–​41) Upbeat to 55–​59 (61–​65)

The form is regular except that the da capo is written out and the two sections are marked to be repeated. The trio remains in the key of E♭ major. Saint-​Saëns used it as the theme for a set of variations for two pianos, op. 35. The flat six that was prominent in the opening of the B section at measures 9–​11 and 47–​49 (11–​13 and 52–​54) is now joined by a flat two, bringing surprising color to the final cadences.

Fourth Movement: E-​flat major—​Presto con fuoco—​6/​8—​Sonata-​Allegro, coda, repeat exposition

 

The O p u s 3 1  Se t

183

Observation Concept

This movement unfolds with an eighth-​note triplet drive, triplet figures sometimes appearing full-​blown, often as accompaniment patterns, and sometimes elided. This underlying rhythmic drive is nonstop except for breathing points near the ends of the exposition and the development and in the coda. Its energy has earned the movement the label “tarantella” in some quarters.

Exposition Measure(s) Upbeat to 1–​12 Upbeat to 18–​33 34–​63

The left-​hand triplet pattern supports a melodic fragment that moves from dominant to tonic. A second idea opens in E♭, the right hand taking up the rhythmic drive with elided triplets, and moves to the second theme area. The second theme prolongs its dominant sonority and delays the resolution to its tonic until the end of the section; this device heightens tension.

64–​83 (85) A closing theme in the dominant recalls the elided triplet figure in the right hand with full triplets in the left. The first ending halts the forward motion on a dominant seventh sonority in E♭ major. The second ending opens the same way but then the idea is stated on the dominant seventh sonority in G♭ major. Development Measure(s)

Upbeat to 84–​127 (86–​129)

The elided triplet pattern is enlisted along with triplets in the left hand to move kaleidoscopically though G♭ major, D♭ major, b minor, c minor, A♭ major, D♭ major, and C major.

 

The Sonata s

184

Development Upbeat to 128–​71 (130–​73)

A series of diminished and dominant seventh sonorities move to stopping points on A♭ major at measure 148 (150) and f minor at 156 (158). A third arrival, the dominant seventh of the home key, rejuvenates the triplet energy at measure 164 (166).

Recapitulation Measure(s)

Upbeat to 200–​63 (202–​65) 263–​ 333 (265–​335)

The elided triplet segment of the first theme suddenly moves to the parallel minor (e♭ minor), preparing the way for the second theme area in G♭ major. The closing section moves back to e♭ minor. The coda opens by stating the opening fragment of the first theme in the home key and ushering in a progression that ends on the VII7 of the dominant with a prolonged sonority that recalls the stopping points in the development (measure 307–​8 (309–​10). This is repeated before the final first-​theme fragments tease with flat sixth scale degrees at measures 324 and 326 (326 and 328) before the final authentic cadence in the home key.

 

The Opus 49 Set: Two “Easy” Sonatas

Biographical Snapshot During this period Beethoven became interested in the project that eventually emerged as the opera Fidelio, as well as the Triple Concerto for piano, violin, and cello op. 56. It is believed that this set of sonatas was composed around 1797 and was never intended to be published but, rather, used as teaching material. Such a theory is confirmed by the fact that the theme of the minuet of the second sonata of this set appeared as the minuet movement of the Septet op. 20, a borrowing untypical of the composer. Some writers speculate that Beethoven’s brother Carl sent the sonatas to a publisher without the composer’s knowledge.

Factual Information This set was published by the Bureau des arts et d’industrie as Deux Sonates faciles in January 1805. Their usefulness must have made for a ready market, for later the same year they were published in Amsterdam and Berlin by Hummel (as op. 11!) and in Bonn by Simrock.

No. 1 First movement: g minor—​Andante—​2/​4—​Sonata-​Allegro, coda, repeat exposition Exposition Measure(s)

1–​2, 16–​17, 29–​33

A rhythmic similarity exists between the first, second, and closing melodies. The exposition ends in the expected relative major (B♭ major).

185

 

The Sonata s

186

Development Measure(s)

Upbeat to 34–​46 Upbeat to 47–​63

The development opens with the four-​note motive characteristic of the themes of the exposition in the key of E♭ major, the idea being extended with new material. The four-​note motive as it appeared in the closing section of the exposition is stated in E♭ major and moves through c minor and g minor with an extension.

Recapitulation Measure(s)

Upbeat to 72–​79

A “turnaround” opens with the first theme in the left hand in g minor, then in B♭ major, before returning to the home key for the entrance of the second theme.

80–​97

The closing phrase of the second theme is extended to incorporate a climax (measures 91–​93).

Upbeat to 98–​110

A coda presents the first theme in the left hand and closing measures that resolve to the parallel major (G major).

Second movement: G major—​Rondo: Allegro—​6/​8—​ABCBACA Structure

An unusual rondo pattern unfolds. Both B sections are in g minor, and the two C sections are in B♭ major and G major respectively. The short coda consists of cadence-​like harmonic progressions in the home key.

No. 2 First movement:  G major—​Allegro ma non troppo—​4/​4 (alla breve)—​Sonata-​ Allegro, repeat exposition Exposition Measure(s)

Upbeat to 21

A four-​note motivic idea from the opening theme (measure 2) serves as the basis for the second theme.

 

The O p u s 4 9  Se t

36–​48

The second theme area borrows from the opening theme, rhythmic patterns of triplet eighth notes followed by four quarter notes (measures 36–​41), and altering it (measures 42–​48).

49–​52

The closing section is borrowed from the earlier transition (measures 15–​20).

187

Development Measure(s)

53–​59

The first theme unfolds in d minor and a minor, modulating to the dominant of e minor.

59–​66

Short rhythmic double notes over a repeated-​note accompaniment lead the way back to descending scale fragments in the dominant of the home key.

Recapitulation Measure(s)

75–​87

A ”turnaround” enlists thematic material from the second theme area, presenting it in C major before moving into the expected transition to the second theme itself.

Second movement: G major—​Tempo di Menuetto—​3/​4—​ABACA, coda Structure

Measure(s)

Although the spirit and tempo are those of the minuet, the structure does not unfold in the usual minuet and trio pattern. 28–​47

The B section presents a new theme in the dominant, followed by an extended transition leading back to A.

Upbeat to 68–​86

The C section is ushered in with a change of key signature to C major. It shares with the A theme a dotted-​rhythm upbeat.

Upbeat to 108–​20

The coda is based on the opening rhythmic figure of the A theme. It moves through secondary dominants in C major and a minor to the home key.

 

 

Opus 53 (“Waldstein”)

Biographical Snapshot Between May and November 1803 the composer spent most of the time in resorts outside Vienna working on the Symphony no. 3, the Leonore Overture no. 2, and the op. 53. This was also the year in which the composer received a new piano from Sébastian Érard in Paris. It had a compass of five and a half octaves, from F to c′′′. Unfortunately, Beethoven didn’t like the piano very much, but the extra notes it provided may well be the reason this score incorporates four notes above the typical compass of Viennese pianos (f♯′′′, g′′′, g♯′′′, and a′′′).

Factual Information The op. 53 was published by the Bureau des arts et l’industrie in May 1805. The extant autograph of the work is believed not to be the source for the first edition because of the number of differences between the two. The sonata derives its nickname from the dedication to Count Ferdinand Ernest Gabriel von Waldstein (1762–​1823), a friend and patron from the time Beethoven resided in Bonn. Dispatched to Bonn on a diplomatic mission, the count is believed to have influenced the Elector of Bonn, Maximillian Franz (1756–​1801), to sponsor Beethoven’s studies with Haydn in Vienna. By the time of this dedication, the count had lost his fortune (and his wife’s) trying to persuade Austria to declare war on Napoleon. He died in 1823, disgraced and penniless. The original second movement of the work was the Andante favori (WoO 57), removed for being “too long.” This information was reported by the composer’s friend Ferdinand Ries (who may have made the suggestion himself).

189

 

The Sonata s

190

Observations Structure

In conceptual terms this sonata is regarded by many as having three movements, for although the second section is labeled “introduction” and is joined to the rondo, it is in a different key from the two outer movements (F major) with an ABA pattern of its own. The first movements of this sonata and of the op. 57 have extended, dramatic codas, rivaling the development sections.

Possible Connections between Movements

The opening theme of the first movement moves from the note E up to G; the opening theme of the Rondo starts on G and returns to E.

Performance Indications

Pedal markings throughout the final movement are unusually long and mix tonic and dominant harmonies. Those performing on today’s pianos are challenged to create a sonority that emulates what the composer may have had in mind.

Measures 22–​3 of the opening movement present an augmented sixth harmony built on F that resolves to the dominant of E major/​ minor, a distinctive progression. The second movement opens with the same progression transposed and in a lower register, but also as it appeared in measures 185–​6 of the first movment.

First Movement—​C major—​Allegro con brio—​C (4/​4)—​Sonata-​Allegro, repeat exposition, developmental coda Exposition Measure(s)

1–​20

The sonata opens with a demonstration of compositional virtuosity. The C major opening phrase ends on the dominant; it is repeated a whole step lower (B♭), the final motive moving to the parallel minor of its dominant (f minor). This sonority also functions as the subdominant in c minor. The third phrase moves to the dominant of c minor, presenting passage work based on its dominant ninth. The resolution to the tonic of c minor ends with a fermata on the fifth of the scale. Then a return to the parallel major (C) ushers in a repeat of the opening theme. This time, however, it moves to a whole step above, using the minor mode, the supertonic of the home key.

22–​34 A striking augmented sixth sonority leads to a passage in which B major (as the dominant) and e minor (as the tonic) alternate, ending with prolonged B major sonority.

 

O pu s 5 3 ( “ Wald ste in” )

Measure(s)

35–​74

Measure(s)

74–​85 A closing section cadences in a minor, e minor, and, when the repeat is taken, C major. The second ending leads to a development section that opens in F major.

The entire second theme area is based on E major, first presenting a chorale-​like second theme, and then arpeggio-​ based passage work that leads to a climactic cadence in E. An earlier example of tonic-​mediant relationship in the key of C is the relationship between the keys of the first and second movements of the op. 2, no. 3.

Development

Measure(s)

191

The development presents the opening theme of the exposition and the arpeggio-​based passage work from the second theme, in that order. Presenting exposition themes in the order of their first appearance is a device used also in the developments of the op. 2, no. 1, op. 14, no. 2, op. 49, nos. 1 and 2, op. 57, and in the last movement of op. 27, no. 2. 90–​112 (92–​114)

The opening phrase of the first theme is stated in its entirety in F major, but then its closing figure is detached and developed separately, touching on the keys of g minor, c minor, and f minor, C♭ major ,A ♭ major, and f minor, building to a final cadence that arrives at C major.

112–​42 (114–​4 4)

The arpeggio-​based passage work of the second theme is extended, then fragmented, moving through C major, F major, B♭ major, e♭ minor, b minor, and c minor, finally coming to rest on the dominant seventh of C.

142–​56) (144–​58)

The transition to the recapitulation is one of the most exciting in all of the sonatas, rivaled only by that of the op. 57. A driving bass ostinato figure built on the dominant is joined by rising figuration in the right hand based on the last few notes of the main theme. After this motoric combination reaches its peak, figuation marked with sforzandi and a scale in contrary motion usher in the recapitulation.

 

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192

Recapitulation Measure(s)

168–​73 (170–​75)

A delightfully teasing”turnaround” opens by ending a phrase from the exposition on the “wrong” note, a♭ instead of g. Assuming the wrong note to represent the dominant of a new key, the phrase is repeated in D♭ major, but ends now on b♭. As if to accommodate the “wrong” note a second time, the phrase it repeats is in E♭ major but deftly modulates back to the home key: C major.

184–​210 (186–​212)

The transition to the second theme sets up the key of A major. The second theme is stated in that key, but in a restatement it opens in the parallel minor (a) and resolves to C major for the remainder of the recapitulation’s second theme area.

245–​48 (247–​50)

The closing section’s cadence in C major is moved to F major, then to the parallel minor, this phrase unexpectedly closing with a deceptive cadence that moves to D♭ major.

Coda Measure(s)

249–​59 (251–​61)

261–​302 (263–​304)

The coda is lengthy and developmental, rivaled in excitement only by the coda of the first movement of the op. 57. The first theme opens in D♭ and is fragmented as it moves through b♭ minor and c minor.

The opening theme is then stated in C major but is fragmented as it moves to a climax that encompasses the entire keyboard and ends on the dominant. The second theme is stated again, closing with prolonged half-​cadences in the home key. Finally, the repeated notes that open the first theme lead to a strong descending scale and the final cadence.

[Second Movement] Introduzione—​F major—​Adagio molto—​6/​8—​ABA with transition to last movement

 

O pu s 5 3 ( “ Wald ste in” )

Structure

Measure(s)

193

The outer A sections are motivic and improvisatory; the B section presents a seven-​measure melody in F major. The mood is one of serene contemplation. 1–​9

A rising dotted-​rhythm motive seems to open in F major but resolves to E major by lowering the seventh degree of the scale and treating the harmony as that of an augmented sixth. The idea is repeated, now opening in the parallel minor (e) but resolving as an inverted dominant to B major. A third statement shifts the root down a half step, creates an augmented sixth, and resolves to the dominant of the home key (C7). A cadence then comes to rest on F major. As in the opening of the first movement, the composer presents a virtuoso display of harmonic progressions.

Upbeat to 10–​16

A melodic theme in F major elongates the opening figure of the movement. The first phrase, two measures long, ends on the dominant, and the second two-​measure phrase moves back to the tonic. A third statement leads to the return of the A section.

17–​28

The first two statements of earlier A section are repeated. The third statement is extended, the opening motive rising to the dominant seventh of the home key of the sonata (C major), then descending to a final half-​cadence that leads, after a suspenseful fermata, to the downbeat of the final movement without interruption.

Final movement:  Rondo:  C major—​Allegro moderato—​2/​4—​ABAC development AB coda Measure(s) 1–​62

The lyrical opening theme is presented three times. The first statement unfolds in a cross-​hand presentation (measures 1–​23), the second with right-​hand octaves accompanied by left-​hand arpeggios (measures 31–​50), and the third with the right hand executing a prolonged trill while the upper voice outlines the melody, accompanied by left-​ hand scales in sixteenth and thirty-​second notes, the combination creating an exciting climactic moment. The first two statements are attended by long pedal indications that mix tonic and dominant harmonies. Performers playing on today’s pianos sometimes make adjustments, and many editions change the indications or offer alternatives.

 

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Upbeat to The first departure opens with a broken-​chord figuration in 63–​113 C major. A second section in a minor outlines a new motive that opens in staccato octaves (upbeat to measures 71–​98). A transitional passage presents the opening phrase of the A theme, again with pedal indications that mix sonorities (upbeat to measures 99–​113). 114–​175

The A section is repeated in its entirety.

Upbeat to The C section first presents a strong theme in octaves, 176–​220 opening in c minor and given alternately to each hand. Its second statement is accompanied by dizzying, difficult triplet sixteenth notes (measures 183–​216). Its momentum is allayed by a series of single octaves in both hands on the note C, paced so that the difficulty of bringing this juggernaut to a halt becomes painfully apparent (measures 217–20). 221–​312

A development section follows, beginning with statements of the opening phrase of the A theme in A♭ major, f minor, and D♭ major (measures 221–​34). After a transition section consisting of syncopated chords, the two-​note head of the A theme is stated with arpeggios and/​or passage work, moving through C major, F major, B♭ major, e♭ minor, D♭ major, and c minor, finally coming to rest on prolonged dominant seventh/​flar ninth harmonies in the home key of C (upbest to measure 235–​312).

313–​4 4

The second and third statements of the main theme of the A section are repeated.

Upbeat to The first section of the first departure is restated and 345–​402 expanded, both hands participating the rapid broken-​ chord figurations that become increasingly frenzied, often punctuated with sforzandi. An ensuing section ends with solid dominant-​harmony chords rising to incorporate a minor ninth. 403–​543 An extended coda marked prestissimo opens with statements of the A theme in C major, F major (at measure 427), and G major (at measure 431), extending the phrase with passage work in each case. Then a passage using the opening two-​ note motive of the theme moves through A♭ major, f minor, D♭ major, b♭ minor, f minor, and A♭ major, finally coming to rest on a tonic six-​four outlined with rapid octaves (measures 441–​74). These are fingered 5-​1, 5-​1, 5-​1 in the sources, and

 

O pu s 5 3 ( “ Wald ste in” )

195

it is believed that octave glissandi are called for, which were easier to execute on the action of period pianos. Performers today sometimes incorporate octave glissandi but also sometimes divide the octaves between the hands in various ways when the piano’s action is too resistant. The final section of the coda places prolonged trills in the right hand with upper-​voice outlining of the A theme moving through C major, c minor, A♭ major, and f minor, finally coming to rest on a half-​cadence that incorporates triple trills (measures 477–​514). Final statements of the opening phrase of the A theme and rapid passage work bring the movement to a brilliant close (measures 515–​45). The prolonged trills in this coda were realized by the composer in an example at the end of the autograph. Two versions are offered: a harder one with the trill in sextuplet eighth notes and an easier one with the trill in sextuplet quarter notes. Both examples start the trill on the upper accessory, a fact that has caused much speculation, inasmuch as this is a relatively late date for the composer to do so. (See Chapter 3, p. 26)

 

 

Opus 54

Biographical Snapshot Early in 1804 Beethoven moved his living quarters to a location that would facilitate his being able to help produce his opera, at this point titled Leonore. The rooms proved unsatisfactory, as shown in a letter dated March 1804 to Joseph Sonnleithner (1766–​1835), who at that time held the post of Secretary to the Court Theaters. After expressing the hope that the opera would be produced in June, the composer complained, “Since in my present rooms the servant has to sleep in the kitchen, by now I have already had three servants—​and the third too will not put up with this arrangement for long, apart altogether from other inconveniences…. I do not want to spend another hour in this wretched hole.”1 The first performance of the opera did not actually take place until November 20, 1805, but Beethoven moved to the suburbs for the summer and in October took an apartment in a house owned by Baron Johann Baptist von Pasqualati (1777–​1830), where the composer resided off and on for more than a decade. This residence, which is in the Mölkerbastei, is currently a Beethoven memorial museum. The summer of 1804, when this sonata was being written, was the summer when, as remembered by Ferdinand Ries, Beethoven tore off the title page of the Symphony no. 3 in order to delete the dedication to Napoleon. Reis quotes Beethoven as saying: “So he too is nothing more than an ordinary man. He too will trample all human rights underfoot and only pander to his own ambition; he will place himself above everyone else and become a tyrant!”2

  AND I:107–​8.   Franz Gerhard Wegeler and Ferdinand Ries, Beethoven Remembered:  The Biographical Notes of Franz Wegeler and Ferdinand Ries, trans. Frederick Noonan (Arlington, Virginia; Great Ocean Publishers, 1987), 68. 1 2

197

 

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198

Factual Information The op. 54 is thought to have been offered to Breitkopt & Härtel along with the op. 53 in a letter dated August 26, 1804. Publication was delayed, for in a letter dated April 18, 1805, the composer demanded that the work be published within the next two months, apparently to no avail. The sonata was published by the Bureau d’arts et d’industrie in 1806. The work bears no dedication.

Observations Structure

The first of the non-​teaching two-​movement sonatas, the others being opp. 78, 90, and 111. There is no fully realized sonata-​ allegro structure in this work, although the second movement follows a compressed version of that form, one that is similar to the final movement of the op. 10, no. 2, also in F major.

Possible Connections between Movements

A tenuous connection may exist between the opening F major rising lines of the two movements (measures upbeat to 1–​4 and 1–​8 respectively).

First movement: F major—​In Tempo d’un Menuetto—​3/​4—​ABABA, coda Concept

The music is minuet-​like, but the structure resembles that of a two-​part rondo.

Measure(s) Upbeat to 1–​24

The graceful first theme unfolds in two sets of twelve measures.

Upbeat to 25–​69

The B section is made up of triplet octaves entering in free imitation. The passage is twofold, the first instance starting in F major and ending in C major, the second (upbeat to measure 39) starting in E♭ major and ending in D♭ major. A three-​note fragment serves as a transition back to the A section (measures 58–​69).

Upbeat to 70–​93

The return of A unfolds with figural variations.

Upbeat to 94–​105

The second appearance of B is only ten measures long and stays in the home key (F major).

 

O pu s  5 4

199

Upbeat to 106–​36

The final appearance of A is enhanced with florid figural variations leading to a cadenza-​like passage with a series of trills (measures 132–​35) and a final recitative-​like measure marked with an Adagio tempo change.

Upbeat to 137–​54

The A theme serves as a coda, now presented with a repeated-​note pedal point in the left hand on the tonic.

Second movement: F major—​Allegretto—​2/​4—​Two parts, each repeated, coda, underlying Sonata-​Allegro Concept Measure(s)

This movement is one of perpetual motion, presenting nonstop sixteenth notes throughout. 1–​20

The opening thematic idea consists of a rising tonic arpeggio followed by broken sixths. It enters imitatively in F major. This monothematic section, marked to be repeated, ends in C major. The second ending moves to A major.

21–​114 (22–​115)

This section acts as a development, opening in A major and moving through a variety of keys, with sections starting in c minor at measure 53 (54), A♭ major at measure 75 (76), and C major at measure 99 (100).

115–​62 (116–​64)

The return in F major is more than twice the length of the opening section. At one point entrances follow one another in C major at measure 134 (135), B♭ major at measure 138 (139), and A♭ major at measure 142 (143) in development-​like fashion.

162–​88 (165–​92)

The coda presents the opening theme marked più Allegro. The movement ends fortissimo but abruptly.

 

 

Opus 57 (“Appassionata”)

Biographical Snapshot Beethoven began writing the op. 57 in the summer of 1804. After the first two movements were sketched, the composer had a difficult time finding the right idea for the final movement. Ferdinand Ries (1784–​1838) described the moment of inspiration. The two had been walking in the woods when inspiration hit: “We went so far astray that we didn’t get back … where Beethoven lived, until nearly eight o’clock. The entire way he hummed, or even howled to himself—​up and down, up and down without singing any definite notes. When I  asked what this was, he replied, “[A]‌theme for the last movement of the sonata has occurred to me.” When we entered the room, he rushed to the piano without taking off his hat. I took a seat in the corner and he soon forgot all about me. He stormed on for at least an hour with the new finale of this sonata, which is so beautiful. Finally he got up, was surprised to see that I was still there, and said, ‘I cannot give you a lesson today. I still have work to do.’ ”1 During this time Josephine Deym (née Brunsvik, 1779–​1821) resumed lessons with Beethoven after the death of her husband. As the months went on, Beethoven’s earlier attraction to her was rekindled. He wrote the song “An die Hoffnung,” op. 32, for her, as well as thirteen letters that became increasingly amorous. There is evidence that the composer proposed to her. It is believed that she returned his love but could not marry beneath her station for the protection of her four children, for should she do so, she would forfeit both title and security. After rejecting the composer, she did remarry in 1810, forging an unsuccessful union with Baron Christoph von Stackelberg (1777–​1841). The couple separated in 1813. At one point it was thought that Josephine might be the object of Beethoven’s famous love letter to the Immortal Beloved, but recent evidence has refuted that possibility.2 1   Franz Gerhard Wegeler and Ferdinand Ries, Beethoven Remembered:  The Biographical Notes of Franz Wegeler and Ferdinand Ries, trans. Frederick Noonan (Arlington, Virginia; Great Ocean Publishers, 1987), 87. 2   For a summary of the often contentious, complex process that scholars have undertaken to discover the identity of the Immortal Beloved, see Barry Cooper’s Beethoven (London, Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 207–​12.

201

 

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202

Factual Information The op. 57 was published by the Bureau des arts et d’industrie in February 1807. The term “Appassionata” was attached when it was published by August Cranz in Hamburg in a four-​hand arrangement in 1838. Carl Czerny reported that Beethoven considered the op. 57 “his greatest sonata up to the period when he composed the Op. 106.”3 The sonata is dedicated to Count Franz Brunsvik, a close personal friend, whose sisters studied with Beethoven. The composer dedicated the op. 78 to one of the sisters, Therese, and wrote amorous letters to the other, Josephine, as noted earlier. Beethoven gave the autograph to the pianist Marie Kiéné Bigot de Morogues (1786–​1820) after hearing her play a performance of the work. In 1809 she moved to Paris, where she gave lessons to Fannie and Felix Mendelssohn in 1816. She gave the autograph to the Paris Conservatoire de Musique.

Overall Observations Structure

This three-​movement sonata, along with the 0p. 53, is a high point of the composer’s middle period. The coda of the first movement is the most extended and dramatic in the piano sonatas. The second movement is a set of three variations on a two-​part theme, using the technique of shorenting note values in each variation to increase motion, often called a ”rhythmic crescendo.” A diminished seventh sonority provides a dramatic link between the second and third movements. The sonata-​allegro structure of the final movement is unusual, for the exposition is to be played without repeats, but the development-​recapitulation is marked to be repeated.

Harmonic Features and Connections between Movements

Tension is sustained in the first and last movements by contrasting the minor home key (f minor) with the major key one-​half step above it (G♭ major). In both movements the transition from the development to the recapitulation is effected by a prolonged diminished seventh sonority (VII7 of the home key). Although the second theme area in the first movement opens in the expected relative major (A♭), the parallel minor is introduced (measure 43) and continues to the end of the exposition. The same key pattern has been noted in the op. 2, no. 1, first movement exposition, but in the earlier work the composer merely suggests the parallel minor of the relative major through fleeting use of accidentals. Here it is clear and prolonged.

  CZY, 58.

3

 

O p u s 5 7 ( “A p pa s s ionata” )

203

The use of the submediant as the home key for the second movement occurs four times in the piano sonatas, all four in minor keys: in this work and in the op. 10, no. 1, the op. 13, and the op. 31, no. 2. The final movement presents the second theme area of the exposition in the dominant minor, a relationship found also in the final movements of three other sonatas in minor keys: op. 2, no. 1, op. 27, no. 2, and op. 31, no. 2. The relationship occurs also in the opening movement on the op. 90. Performance Indications

Typical of Beethoven’s style are the many dynamic contrasts and degrees of accent throughout the sonata. Damper pedal indications appear sporadically in all three movements in both the autograph and the first edition, notably in passages where prolonged sonority is sought.

First movement:  f minor—​Allegro assai—​12/​8—​Sonata-​Allegro—​no repeats—​ developmental coda Exposition Measure(s)

Upbeat to The opening theme is stated in f minor on pitches two 1–​10 octaves apart in unison, creating an other-​worldly, eerie atmosphere. It is immediately restated one-​ half step higher in G♭ major, setting up a half-​step relationship that is mirrored in the low bass motive that appears in measure 10 and following measures, also functioning here as the sixth and fifth degrees of the home key scale. The opening unison statement might be reminiscent of the Mannheim tradition, but the mood and dynamic level here do not reflect the energetic cheer typical of such openings. 9–​11

The manner of execution of the ornaments in measures 7 and 9 is in dispute. Some believe that the eighth grace note should be played before the seventh beat of the measure. Others believe its meaning is to direct the performer to start the trill on the main note rather than on the upper accessory, but on the seventh beat, not before it, distinguishing this figure from that in measure 11, where the grace note is absent. Such differentiation in notation extends throughout the movement.

 

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10–​13

The quarter note in the low bass figure in measure 10 is marked with a staccato in both the autograph and the first edition, but the quarter notes in measures 12 and 13 are without the marking. For consistency, some editors remove the staccato mark in measure 10 or add them to the notes in measures 12 and 13. Others believe the text is correct, regarding the change as a gesture that helps build tension for the passave work in measure 14.

14–​15

The rapid cadenza-​like passage is an example of the composer’s penchant for placing technical challenges near the beginnings of movements. Other examples that exhibit such challenges are the op. 2, no. 2 (rapid scales, measures 32–​38); op. 2, no. 3 (double thirds, measures 1–​3); op. 10 no. 3 (broken sixths, upbeat to measure 11–​16); op. 31, no. 2 (rapid two-​note slurs, upbeat to measures 3–​18); and op. 81a (double notes, measures 29–​33).

35–​41

The second theme opens in the traditional relative major and is linked to the opening theme by its rhythm and by its use of notes drawn from a tonic triad arpeggio. It recalls an earlier, different similarity that exists between the first and second themes of the first movement of the op. 2, no. 1, also in f minor.

51–​65

The lyricism of the opening second theme is replaced by agitated passage work in the parallel minor (a♭) for the remainder of the exposition.

Development

Measure(s)

The development mirrors the exposition in that it develops in turn the first theme, transition material, and the second theme. The procedure was used also in first-​movement development sections of the op. 2, no. 1, op. 14, no. 2. op. 49, nos. 1 and 2, and op. 53, as well as the final movement of the op. 27, no. 2. Upbeat to 67–​93

The first theme is presented and extended in E major, e minor, c minor, and A♭ major, and with a diminished seventh sonority that leads through transition material to D♭ major.

 

O p u s 5 7 ( “A p pa s s ionata” )

205

109–​22

The first phrase of the second theme is stated in D♭ major, b♭ minor, and G♭ major and extended to the entrance of the transition.

123–​34

The cadenza-​like transition to the recapitulation is built on the diminished seventh sonority of the VII7 of the home key and, when the dominant tone is added, the dominant ninth. Original pedaling marks prolong the sonority from measure 123 to the downbeat of measure 132, the composer indicating his insistence on this pedaling by writingsempre ped. in measures 125 and 128.

Recapitulation Measure(s)

134–​51

The arrival of the recapitulation is altered more extensively than in any of the other piano sonatas. The repeated notes attending the restatement of the opening theme create intense drama leading up to the cadenza-​like passage in measures 149–​50. A number of other sonatas show changes at the opening of the recapitulation ranging from altered dynamics to rewriting. Examples are op. 2, nos. 1 and 2, op. 7, op. 10, no. 2, op. 14, no. 1, op. 31, nos. 1 and 2, op. 101, op. 106, op. 109, op. 110, and op. 111.

151–​54

The sudden shift to the parallel major (F) is striking. Although it strategically seems like a “turnaround,” it also foreshadows the statement of the second theme (measures 174–​80), the composer having retained the major mode for this second-​theme segment thus far throughout the movement.

Coda Measure(s)

Upbeat to 205–​38

The first theme ix extended to modulate to D♭ major. The opening segment of the second theme is stated in that key, forming a link to its statement in the development section (measure 109). As in the development the theme is fragmented, rising to cadenza-​like passage work.

 

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206

218–​38

Upbeat to 239–​62

The passage work opens in G♭ major and is reminiscent of that which connected the development to the recapitulation. Here it rises to a greater height, eventually slowing to build suspense for the energy of the final section. The composer’s pedal indications sustain each sonority to its fullest length. The final section is marked to be played faster. For the first time the composer states the opening segment of the second theme in the minor mode of the home key, changing its contour to drive toward a series of cadence-​ like chords, rapidly alternating between hands. A final arrival in the home key is extended, as a reference to the opening theme of the movement returns. It fades away as if heard in retrospect but sets the mood for the opening of the next movement.

Second movement:  D♭ major—​Andante con moto—​2/​4—​Theme and Three Variations, theme restatement Theme Measure(s)

1–​16

The theme presents two eight-​measure segments of chorale-​like chords in a dignified quarter-​note movement. Each segment is marked to be repeated. The first segment ends in the tonic. The second segment consists of repeated dominant-​to-​tonic progressions.

Variation One Measure(s)

17–​32 (35) An alternating hand pattern establishes the rhythmic crescendo, creating an underlying eight-​note movement interspersed with sixteenth notes. Each segment is attended by first and second endings.

Variation Two Measure(s)

33–​48 (36–​53)

The theme is presented in the right hand with a sixteenth-​note figural pattern, continuing the rhythmic crescendo. First and second endings attend each segment.

 

O p u s 5 7 ( “A p pa s s ionata” )

207

Variation Three Measure(s)

Upbeat to 49–​80 (54–​85)

The repeat of each of the segments of the theme is written out. Thirty-​second notes continue the rhythmic crescendo, appearing alternately in each hand as an accompaniment pattern to syncopated fragments of the theme.

81–​97 (86–​102)

The theme is restated in its original form without repeats but with lyrical lines in the left hand inserted between phrases of the first segment. The final cadence does not resolve to the home key but introduces two surprising diminished seventh chords, each attended by a fermata, the first one marked pp, the second ff. The diminished seventh harmony links this movement to the next, which opens with the same sonority.

Theme Measure(s)

Third movement:  f minor—​Allegro, ma non troppo—​2/​4—​Sonata-​Allegro—​ repeat development-​recapitulation only, coda with repeated segments Exposition Measure(s)

1–​19

An introduction picks up the diminished seventh sonority from the closing of the preceding movement in series of repeated chords in dotted rhythm followed by a descending figural pattern in sixteenth notes.

20–​75

The main theme is attended by sixteenth-​note patterns throughout. Initially they outline harmony reminiscent of the first movement, juxtaposing f minor with G♭ major. As the pattern is repeated, a short rhythmic figure is added (upbeat to measures 29–​35). That figure becomes more prominent as the sixteenth notes gradually assume the role of an accompaniment (measures 36–​6 4). The opening pattern returns, acting as a transition to the second theme fragment and modulating to the dominant minor (measures 64–​75).

76–​96

The second theme is built on a short fragment (measures 76–​77), repeated and extended.

 

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96–​118

The closing section presents the main theme figuration in imitation between the hands, its closing now punctuated with a series of cadential chords heightened by syncopated sforzandi. A diminished seventh sonority links the exposition with the development.

118–​41

Main theme figuration is presented in various guises, passing through the opening diminished seventh sonority and b♭ minor.

Development Measure(s)

142–​83

184–​211

A syncopated interlude unrelated to previous material appears in b♭ minor and f minor, alternating between piano and forte dynamic levels. At measure 158 the main theme is stated in imitation in f minor, finally arriving at G♭ major followed by dominant seventh sonorities of the home key in an alternating-​hand figuation. The transition to the recapitulation is based on diminished seventh and dominant seventh sonorities, the composer prolonging them with damper pedal indications. This transition mirrors the one in the first movement that is based on the same harmony.

Recapitulation Measure(s)

212–​67

The first-​theme events of the exposition are shortened but presented in order with only small changes (measures 220–​27). The“turnaround” takes the main theme into D♭ major (measures 260–​67) before moving to the second theme area. 268–​307 The second theme and closing sections are presented (315) in the home key. Elaborate first and second endings attend the end of the recapitulation, the former leading back to the beginning of the development section (measure 118), where the composer wrote “la seconda parte due volte,” a direction that suggests how important it was to him that the repeat be played.

 

O p u s 5 7 ( “A p pa s s ionata” )

Coda Measure(s)

209

The tempo is now marked presto. 308–​25 (316–​34)

Two frenzied segments of eight and ten measures respectively present fortissimo and sforzando chords interspersed with staccato eighth-​note chords marked piano. The first opens in f minor and modulates to c minor; the second opens in A♭ major and modulates back to f minor. Each segment is marked to be repeated.

326–​61 (336–​71)

The final statement of the opening theme is punctuated with arpeggio-​like chords marked with repeated sforzandi. The theme is fragmented, ushering in the final whirlwind of descending tonic arpeggio figurations. The ending is among the most powerfully driven endings in all keyboard literature.

 

 

Opus 78

Biographical Snapshot Jerome Bonaparte (1784–​1860), Napoleon’s brother, was appointed King of Westphalia by Napoleon. Jerome offered Beethoven the position of Kapellmeister for the kingdom at a salary of six hundred ducats per year. The offer attracted Beethoven, for some of his benefactors had withdrawn support because of difficult financial times. He also felt that the Viennese musical culture had declined. However, a group of admirers put together a slightly better offer: a lifetime annuity of four thousand florins provided that the composer stay in Vienna. Beethoven accepted this counter-​offer. It provided him with needed financial security, although inflation decreased the value of the florin over the next several years. One of the contributors to the annuity was the twenty-​one-​year-​old Archduke Rudolf (1788–​1831), who became one of Beethoven’s closest friends. Now with better financial standing, Beethoven wrote to his friend Baron Ignaz von Gleichtenstein (1778–​1828): “Now you can help me look for a wife. …. She must be beautiful, however, for I cannot love anything that is not beautiful … else I should have to love myself.”1

Factual Information The op.  78 was offered to Breitkopf & Härtel in July 1809, but it was not published until November 1810. The autograph is extant. The work is dedicated to Countess [Maria] Therese Brunsvik. (For information about the Brunsvik family, see the op. 57.) Therese never married, devoting her life to charitable work involving young children.

  AND I:219.

1

211

 

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Observations Concept

This is the second of the series of non-​teaching two-​movement sonatas, the others being the opp. 54, 90, and 111.

Possible Connections between Movements

The chord progression introduced in measures 31–​32 of the first movement is used as the basis for the main theme of the second movement (measures 1–​2). The melodic profile of the first theme of the first movement (upbeat to measure 5–​6) can be traced in the figuration of measures 12–​13 of the second movement.

First movement: F-​sharp major—​Adagio cantabile in 2/​4; Allegro ma non troppo in 4/​4—​Sonata-​Allegro, repeat both sections Exposition Measure(s)

1–​4

This four-​measure introduction does not reappear later in the movement as do the introductions to the first movements of the op. 13 and the op. 31, no. 2. Observers have speculated that the absence of the third of the chord at the fermatas in measure 4 is intended to create anticipation for its appearance as the upbeat to the next measure, the opening of the exposition.

Upbeat to 5–​28

Three motivic ideas make up the first theme area, each flowing into the next: a lyrical theme (upbeat to measures 5–​11), a series of cadence-​like chords (measures 12–​16), and sixteenth-​note figuration in the right hand with melodic fragments in the left, the latter arriving at a climactic cadence in the dominant (measures 16–​28).

28–​39

Like the first theme area, the second theme area, although brief, incorporates three ideas: triplet figures in both hands outlining dominant triadic harmony (measures 28–​31) right-​hand sixteenth-​note figuration alternating with a three-​chord progression that will appear at the opening of the final movement (measures 31–​36), and sixteenth-​note passage work in the left hand that outlines an unresolved authentic cadence in the dominant (measures 36–​38).

 

O pu s  7 8

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38 (38–​40) The first ending incorporates the first notes of the first theme into the repeat; the second ending heralds its statement in the parallel minor, a statement that appears in the development.

Development Measure(s)

The development uses the first theme only and is but eighteen measures long. The opening phrase of the first theme begins in f♯ minor

Upbeat to 39–​45 and ends in A major. Then it is shortened to the upbeat (41–​47) and first four notes in g♯ minor.

Upbeat The upbeat figure of the first theme is repeated as a to 46–​51 motivic fragment with a sixteenth-​note accompaniment, (48–​53) passing through d♯ minor, c♯ minor, and B major. Upbeat The sixteenth notes become scales outlining the to 52–​56 dominant of the home key and come to rest on its (54–​58) sonority (measures 55–​56 (57–​58), preparing the recapitulation.

Recapitulation Measure(s)

The recapitulation is regular, presenting all material heard in the exposition. Upbeat to 65–​75 (67–​77)

The ”turnaround” extends the cadence-​like series of chords touching on E major, f♯ minor, and b minor, coming to rest in B major at the point that is the transposition of the exposition (measure 75 (77).

97–​105 (99–​108)

The sixteenth-​note figuration of the second theme area is extended as an accompaniment pattern to the return of the first theme, it too being extended, this time in b minor at measures 100–​101 (102–​103), and finally moving toward the home key though the dominant. The left-​hand accompaniment climbs into the treble register of the keyboard before the final closing tonic chords in the right hand bring the movement to a strong close.

 

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Second movement: F-​sharp major—​Allegro vivace—​2/​4—​ABABCABCA, coda Concept

Measure(s)

This movement is filled with surprise and good humor. Short phrases are attended by contrasting dynamics and articulation, often swapping these indications in various appearances. The statements of the A and B thematic ideas are in the home key with the exception of their third appearance, which is in B major. The two appearances of C are centered in d♯ and f ♯, the nature of the theme equivocating between minor and major. 1–​11

The first theme opens with an augmented sixth sonority that resolves to the third inversion of the dominant of the home key. The second phrase resolves to the dominant (C# major). The next phrase settles on the subdominant (B major), and the home key finally arrives at the end of the theme (measure 12).

12–​31

The rapid two-​note slurred figure serves as the second idea. Somewhat reminiscent of string writing, it is joined by a longer-​line accompaniment. At measure 22 hands alternate, with the two-​note figure outlining the dominant of the home key.

57–​74 and 116–​33

The C theme extends the two-​note figure into an upward arpeggio in major mode, answered by a phrase in the parallel minor with jocular effect.

150–​83

The coda grows directly out of an extension of the A theme. It builds on the theme’s second phrase to a climactic reiteration of a dotted rhythm figure (measures 168–​172) followed by two full-​measure chords and an upward dominant arpeggio, each marked with or ending with a fermata (measures 175–​77). An upward-​moving return of the two-​note figure, once again toying with the minor-​major duplicity, brings the movement to an energetic close (measures 178–​83).

 

Opus 79 (“alla tedesca”)

Biographical Snapshot It was probably Baron Ignaz von Gleichtenstein (1778–​1828) who introduced Beethoven to Therese Malfatti, an eighteen-​year-​old maiden. Beethoven wanted to marry her, but her family opposed the idea. Ironically, Gleichtenstein ended up marrying her sister Anna. Her uncle Giovanni was a prominent physician who treated Beethoven from time to time, including his final days. The composer wrote Für Elise for her and possibly meant to dedicate this sonata to her. On December 22, 1808, a concert of Beethoven’s works took place at the Theater an der Wien. It was one of the most important public events of his career. The program consisted of the Symphonies nos. 5 and 6, the Choral Fantasy (op. 80), three other choral excerpts, and the Piano Concerto no. 4 (op. 58). Beethoven played the solo part in the concerto. Extant sketches show that he altered more than one hundred measures of the piano part, semi-​improvising to make it more virtuosic and complex than the printed version.

Factual Information In late 1810 this work was published as a “sonatine” almost simultaneously by Breitkopf & Härtel in Leipzig and Clementi and his associates in London.

Overall Observations Concept

This is a light-​hearted work. Along with the op. 49, it is considered to be less difficult than the other sonatas and is often used as teaching material. The first movement is, however, more challenging than it appears if taken at the indicated tempo.

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Possible Connections between Movements

The opening themes of the first and second movements both rise from the tonic to the third to the fifth of their respective keys (measures 1 and 2 and measure 1). The third movement’s opening also outlines the tonic, third, and fifth of its key but changes the order (measures 1–​2).

First movement: G major—​Presto alla tedesca—​3/​4—​Sonata-​Allegro, coda, repeat both sections The term “alla tedesca” refers to a fast country dance, a type of Ländler, in 3/​4 time.

Exposition Measure(s)

8–​12

These measures in the first theme preview the rhythm and texture of the second theme.

24–​51 (52)

Although the first theme resolves to the traditional dominant key (D major), its emphasis on its own dominant (A major) leaves a somewhat ambiguous impression, adding to the energy of the music. The first ending returns to the home key (G major) for the repeat; the second ending prepares the way for the opening of the development in E major.

Development Measure(s)

The development section is proportionately long when compared to the exposition. 52–​58 (53–​59)

The first theme is stated in E major.

59–​122 The first three notes of the first theme are used repeatedly (60–​123) in a cross-​hand figuration that appears in two sections, the first in E major and C major, the second in c minor and E♭ major. A shortened third statement in the key of the dominant (D major) leads to the recapitulation.

Recapitulation Measure(s)

The recapitulation is regular. 170–​201 (175–​206)

The second ending leads to a coda based on the first theme in which the left-​hand opening phrase is answered by the right hand. A soft upward tonic arpeggio enables the movement to vanish.

 

O p u s 7 9 ( “al la ted e s ca” )

217

Second movement: g minor—​Andante—​9/​8—​ABA Concept

This movement is but thirty-​four measures long. Its time signature and rhythmic figuration create a barcarole-​like effect.

Measure(s) 1–​9 and 22–​34

The A theme presents a melodic line in thirds and sixths in the right hand supported by sets of three eighth notes in the left. The theme’s second appearance is extended into a codetta by restating its opening phrase with a sixteenth-​ note accompaniment followed by decorated cadences.

Upbeats to 10–​21

The B section uses the rhythm of the left hand of the A section to create a melody in E♭ major. The left hand accompaniment becomes groups of sixteenth notes.

Third movement: G major—​Vivace—​2/​4—​ABACA, coda Measure(s)

1–​16 35–​50 (36–​51)

The A theme is presented in two sets of eight measures, each marked to be repeated. The first return of A is without repeats.

18–​34 (19–​35)

The B section is in e minor and very short, sounding almost like a variation of A in that its opening motive has the same rhythm, as well as the transition back to A.

Upbeat to 51–​71 (52–​72)

A change in key signature announces the C section. It presents a new theme in sixteenth-​note scales and eighth-​note broken arpeggios, first in C major, then in F major, returning to C major.

 

 

Opus 81a (“Lebewohl”)

Biographical Snapshot On May 11 and 12, 1809, Napoleon’s army bombarded Vienna. Beethoven’s hearing, declining but sensitive, was so badly affected that he took refuge in the cellar of his brother’s house, covering his ears with pillows. The aftermath of the city’s occupation by Napoleon’s army was difficult. The composer wrote to his publisher Breitkopf & Härtel: “We have lately been suffering misery in a most concentrated form. Let me tell you that since May 4, I have produced very little coherent work … practically just a fragment here and there. The whole course of events has affected both body and soul … what a destructive, disorderly life is here around me, nothing but drums, cannons, and human misery in every form.”1 In the same letter Beethoven requested that the publisher send him scores of J. S. Bach, C. P. E. Bach, Haydn, and Mozart for personal study. The composer apparently was unable to hire a cleaning person during this period. This circumstance compounded his habitual untidiness, described by Louis-​Philippe-​Joseph-Girod de Vienney, Baron de Trémont (1779–​1852): “Picture to yourself the dirtiest, most disorderly place imaginable … blotches of moisture covering the ceiling, an oldish grand piano (I do not exaggerate) and unemptied chamber pot … the chairs, mostly of cane, covered with plates bearing the remnants of last night’s supper, and with clothing, etc.”2

Factual Information The movement titles were provided by the composer. The first movement’s title, “Lebewohl,” refers to the departure of Beethoven’s friend and patron the Archduke Rudolf on May 4, 1809, the day the Viennese aristocracy evacuated the city to   AND I:233–​34.   O. G. Sonneck, Beethoven: Impressions of His Contemporaries (1926; repr., Mineola, NY: Dover, 1967), 70. 1 2

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escape Napoleon’s advancing army. The German term held special meaning for Beethoven, for he later wrote to his publisher insisting the German be used in addition to a planned translation: “For Lebewohl means something quite different from Les Adieux. The first is said in a warm-​hearted manner to one person, the other to a whole assembly, to entire towns.”3 The first movement of the sonata was written at the time of the departure; the other two movements were written later. The sonata was published by Breitkopf & Härtel in July 1811 as op. 81. Beethoven also offered it to Clementi and his associates in London, that firm registering it for publication in late January 1811 with a probable publication date sometime later that year. The autograph of the first movement is preserved in the collection of the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in Vienna. It is believed to be one presented to the Archduke Rudolf by the composer. The later subdivision of the op. 81 took place in order to avoid confusion, for the Bonn publisher Simrock released the Sextette for String Quartet and Two Horns, a work dating from 1794–​95, as op. 81 in 1809 or early 1810.

Observations Program

This is the only piano sonata for which Beethoven provided programmatic titles.

Possible Connections between Movements

The Lebewohl motive of the first movement is echoed in the main theme of the third movement (measures 11–​12, etc.) The first and second movements are linked by the melodic contours of measures 3–​4 and 1–​3 respectively, both lines using a rising dotted-​rhythm figure that goes up to e♭′′. The first and third movements both use a written-​out trill in the right hand under a slower-​moving soprano melody as second-​theme material in a sonata-​allegro structure, measures 50–​57 and 53–​56, etc., respectively.

First movement:  Das Lebewohl [Les Adieux; The Departure] E-​flat major—​ Adagio; Allegro—​2/​4—​4/​4 (alla breve)—​Introduction; Sonata-​Allegro, coda, repeat exposition   AND I:337–​38.

3

 

O pu s 8 1 a ( “L ebewohl ” )

Introduction

This introduction is highly original and deeply felt. The first three quarter notes are attended by the syllables Le-​be-​wohl in both the autograph and the first edition. This figure is typical of patterns played on the post horn, an instrument used by security personnel to announce the arrival and departure of coaches. The figure was thus associated with travel. The use of a deceptive cadence in measure 2 suggests that the occasion was an unhappy one. The reharmonization of the figure in measures 7 and 8 to resolve C♭ (B) major is striking.

Exposition Measure(s)

221

17–​34

An energetic first theme opens on an inversion of the subdominant that descends chromatically to the tonic. Octave leaps lead to a challenging double-​note passage (measures 29–​33), another example of the composer’s penchant for placing challenging technical passages close to exposition openings. . Other examples that exhibit such challenges are the op. 2, no. 2 (rapid scales, measures 32–​38); op. 2, no. 3 (double thirds, measures 1–​3; op. 10 no. 3 (broken sixths, upbeat to measure 11–16); op. 31, no. 2 (rapid two-​note slurs, upbeat to measures 3–​18); and op. 57 (broken chord arpeggio, measures 14–​15. As in the op. 10, no. 3, the passage in this work is made more difficult by its encompassing the point at which the recapitulation departs from the exposition.

35–​49

The passage modulates to the dominant and toys with both major and minor modes, continuing to suggest mixed emotions about the departure.

50–​68 (69)

The melodic line of the opening phrase of the introduction returns accompanied by a written-​ out trill-​like figure and harmonic support that incorporates a reiteration of a flat six before progressing to a dominant key resolution, yet another reminder of the mood attending the departure.

 

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Development Measure(s)

68–​89 (70–​91)

Upbeat to 91–​109 (93–​111)

Recapitulation Measure(s)

After stating the opening phrase of the first theme in c minor, the development alternates an augmentation of the three opening notes of the introduction (Le-​be-​wohl) with a rhythmic fragment of the first theme in the exposition, touching on b♭ minor first, and then moving through a series of major-​minor seventh sonorities built on D, C♭, and B♭. After stating the first theme in G♭ major, the augmented motive becomes a series of whole notes accompanied by the rhythmic fragment from the first theme. Its resolution in c minor hesitates with repeated sonorities on a first-​inversion A♭ major triad, serving as a deft transition to the opening sonority of the first theme and the recapitulation.

The recapitulation reiterates all musical events. 124–​26 (126–​28)

As noted above, the “turnaround” occurs at the challenging double-​note passage, evolving into the second theme area in the home key.

Coda Measure(s)

160–​80 (162–​82)

181–​255 (183–​257)

The Lebewohl theme appears in whole notes followed by statements of the first theme of the exposition, much as it appeared at the opening of the development section, passing through f minor and e♭ minor.

The whole-​note Lebewohl motive appears in various forms, both imitatively and in counterpoint with eighth-​note passage work, the combination being traded between the right hand and the left.

Second movement: Abwesenheit [L’Absence; The Absence] c minor—​In gehender Bewegung, doch mit viel Ausdruck (Andante espressivo)—​2/​4—​ABAB

 

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Observation Tempo Marking

The tempo marking of this movement is in both the traditional Italian and in German, the latter used by Beethoven to indicate tempo for the first time in the piano sonatas. It is believed that he felt the German indication expressed his intentions more precisely.

Structure

Although the movement unfolds in two parts, the key relationships are unusual, as noted below.

Measure(s) 1–​8

The tonic opening moves immediately to a diminished seventh sonority in the first four measures, ending on the dominant (G major) of the home key. The second four measures present a parallel idea ending on the tonic (c minor). The sonority and progression of these phrases convey the sense of aimlessness one might associate with loss. The slow left hand eighth notes in measures 1–​2 and 5–​6 could suggest the ticking of a clock counting off the seemingly endless passage of time during lonliness. Opening in A♭ major, the first phrase of this transition-​ like passage ends in f minor. Then a return to the opening phrase of the movement leads to a cadenza-​like passage in g minor.

Upbeat to 9–​14

15–​20

A second thematic idea unfolds with a dominant that resolves to G major and then in g minor, the latter featuring staccato left-​hand thirty-​second notes punctuated by right-​hand chords. The passage closes in c minor.

21–​24

At measure 21 the second large section of the movement begins. It does so with an unexpected transposition and reharmonization of the opening phease that resolves to f minor.

25–​26

The transposition of the analogous passage of the opening measures continues, this time opening in D♭ major and ending in b♭ minor.

 

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27–​42

At measure 27, if the exact transposition were to continue, the ensuing passage would be built around c minor. Instead the composer shifts to f minor, the opening diminished seventh sonority being ambiguous enough to allow this change to be made smoothly. The remainder of the movement unfolds regularly within the framework of this transposition. The final unprepared shift to c minor at measure 37 occurs at the structural place parallel to that of measure 21. At measure 41 the composer lowers the root of the VII7 in c minor a half-​step to form the dominant seventh of the home key of E♭ major. He uses the dotted-​rhythm motive of this movement to prepare the V7 opening of the final movement, the sonority attended by a pedal marking.

Third movement: Das Wiedersehen [Le Retour; The Return]—​E-​flat major—​Im Lebhaften Zeitmasse (In a Lively Tempo)—​6/​8—​Sonata-​Allegro, coda, repeat exposition Exposition Measure(s)

1–​10

An energetic introduction uses dominant-​seventh arpeggio-​like passage work to lead to the first theme.

11–​28

The melodic shape and underlying harmony of the first theme are similar to those of the post horn motive from the first movement, although they are not exact enough to be considered cyclic.

29–​52

A striking transition section features virtuosic broken arpeggios and rapid scales followed by figuration that introduces Neapolitan sixth harmonies that resolve to dominant of the second theme area, itself the dominant of the home key. Part of this progression is attended by pedal markings.

53–​81 (82) The second theme area opens with melodic fragments accompanied by written-​out trills (measures 53–​64) and moves through cadence-​like progressions that feature rapid scales, figuration, and broken arpeggios.

 

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Development Measure(s)

Upbeat to 82–​93 (83–​94)

The first three notes of the first theme serve as a fragment throughout the development, here entering in e♭ minor and moving to G♭ major. These entries are answered by a lyrical phrase in right-​hand octaves.

94–​103 (95–​104)

The second theme with its written-​out trills returns in B major, it, too, being interrupted by a continuation of the previously noted lyrical material.

104–​9 (105–​10)

The three-​note reference to the first theme returns briefly with short imitative gestures.

110–​76 (111–​77)

The recapitulation is regular in that presents all events of the exposition with the second theme area in the tonic. Only the first theme is slightly rewritten for more virtuosic effect.

Upbeat to 177–​96 (178–​97)

The brilliant closing cadence of the recapitulation often leads audiences to react before the onset of the coda, which begins quietly by restating the first theme and expanding it in a slower tempo at the upbeat to measures 177–​9 0 (178–​91). A burst of energy closes the movement with broken octaves in the right hand

Recapitulation Measure(s)

 

 

Opus 90

Biographical Snapshot Several prolonged bouts of illness caused the composer to spend time at various heath resorts, the most notable being Teplitz, a spa four days’ journey from Vienna where prominent people from Germany and Austria vacationed. In 1812 Beethoven wrote a love letter he apparently never sent but rather concealed in private papers in a secret drawer in his desk. Addressed “To the Immortal Beloved,” the letter was found after his death. The identity of the woman for whom it was intended has been a topic of debate. Four different women have been put forward as possibilities. Recent sleuthing has suggested that the most likely candidate is Antonie Brentano (née Birkenstock) (1780–1869), a Viennese woman who married Franz Brentano, a Frankfurt merchant, in 1798. The letter was to have been dispatched to Karlsbad on July 5 or 6, and Antonie seems to be the only woman who could possibly have been in that city on or around those dates. She probably was settling the Birkenstock estate and returning to Frankfurt shortly thereafter. Beethoven quite possibly never saw Antonie again after this period. She bore her husband six children, including Maximiliane, to whom Beethoven dedicated the op. 109.

Factual Information The autograph of the op.  90 is dated August 16, 1814. The work was advertised in the Wiener Zeitung on June 9, 1815, by the publisher Sigmund Anton Steiner (1773–​1838). It was among the first of several of Beethoven’s works to be published by Steiner. The publisher owned a music shop in Vienna that was a frequent gathering place for Beethoven and his friends. The op.  90 is dedicated to Count Moritz Lichnowsky (1771–​1837), the young brother of Prince Karl Lichnowsky (1761–​1814). Early in Beethoven’s career, Karl was a strong supporter and friend. Unfortunately, a falling-​out took place between the Beethoven and Karl in 1806 during the composer’s visit to the Lichnowsky castle in Gräz. Beethoven and Moritz, however, remained good friends. 227

 

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Observations Concept

The op. 90 and the op. 78 are frequently heard shorter two-​ movement piano sonatas of Beethoven. This work consists of two movements of almost equal importance, the first a sonata-​allegro in e minor and the second a rondo in the parallel major.

Possible Connections between Movements

Connections in this work are tenuous. Both movements open with upbeats leading to a downbeat on the third of the scale. The short-​long rhythmic pattern that opens the sonata (upbeat and downbeat of measure 1) appears in transitions to the second themes of both movements (upbeat to measures 25, 29, etc., in the first movement and upbeat to measure 33,etc., in the second). Both movements present descending lines outlined in octaves, in the second theme areas of a sonata-​allegro form (first movement) and of a sonata-​rondo form (second movement) (measures 55–​58 and measures 60–​63 respectively).

1st movement:  e minor—​Mit Lebhaftigkeit und durchaus mit Empfindung und Ausdruck (With liveliness and throughout with feeling and expression)—​3/​4—​ Sonata-​Allegro, no repeats, short coda Exposition Measure(s)

Upbeat to 1–​24

The opening presents a forte rhythmic motive that alternates with a piano lyrical answer. The answer is extended with an expanded range (upbeat to measures 17–​24) with harmonic support that includes left-​hand chords spanning the interval of a tenth.

Upbeat to 25–​45

A transition is noteworthy for using descending scales and cadences to pass through the keys of C major, a minor, and B♭ major, arriving at the dominant minor of the movement, b minor.

55–​66

The b minor second theme introduces rapid broken-​ chord figuration in the left hand that often spans the interval of a tenth (measures 55–​65), creating a technical challenge, especially for smaller hands.

 

O pu s  9 0

67–​84

Development

Measure(s)

The exposition ends in b minor, presenting and reiterating a phrase that ends with the interval of a falling minor second, possibly derived from the first two notes of the second theme introduced in measure 55.

This section presents both the rhythmic and lyrical elements of the opening theme of the exposition, developing each in turn. Upbeat to 85–​107

The rhythmic motive from the opening theme is stated and then fragmented, passing through a minor, E♭ major, e♭ minor, and unwinding on a pedal point on G followed by converging chromatic lines in each hand.

108–​32

The lyrical element of the first opening theme is presented in the right hand, then placed in the left hand with a sixteenth-​note broken-​chord figuration in the right, opening in C major and passing through F major, a minor, and ending in e minor.

132–​43

The short re-​transition is noted for its canonic display, first proceeding with augmentation, moving from sixteenth notes to eighth-​note, quarter-​note, and half-​ note values, and then returning to shorter note values in increasingly closer imitation.

Recapitulation Measure(s)

229

This section is regular in that it restates all the material of the exposition. Upbeat to 180–​81

The “turnaround” touches on F major.

Upbeat to 223–​45

A phrase from the closing section is extended, leading to the short coda. Fragments of the opening theme join to form a quiet close.

 

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2nd movement: E major—​Nicht zu geschwind und sehr singbar vorgetragen (Not too vigorous and presented very songfully)—​2/​4—​ABAC (dev.) ABA coda; no repeats (AB-​like exposition in Sonata-​Allegro form) Measure(s)

Upbeat 1–​32 Upbeat to 33–​59

The A theme is lyrical and almost pastoral. It has an internal organization of aabbaa. A transition in C♯ minor leads to a lyrical B theme in the dominant with initial phrases accompanied by a written-​out trill figure (upbeat to measures 41–​59)

60–​69

The closing theme in quarter and half notes becomes important in the development (C) section.

Upbeat to 70–​113

A complete restatement of the A theme unexpectedly ends with an extension that modulates to C major.

114–​39

The C section develops the aforementioned closing theme, opening in C major and moving through c minor, c♯ minor, and C♯ major. A re-​transition hovers on the dominant of the home key (measures 130–​39).

Upbeat to 140–​99

The exposition-​like opening section is repeated with the B section in the tonic.

200–​290

The closing section now leads to a developmental coda consisting of several events: an imitative use of A’s second phrase in diminution (upbeat to measures 212–​21); passage work in both hands on dominant harmony (upbeat to measures 223–​29); a partial restatement of A with the melodic line shared by both hands (measures 230–​55); another extension and development of the second phrase of A (measures 256–​75); and a final partial statement of A that fragments and brings the movement to a quiet close (measures 276–​9 0).

 

Opus 101

Biographical Snapshot The political turbulence that surrounded Beethoven and all of Vienna began to subside as Napoleon suffered defeats at Leipzig (1813) and Waterloo (1815), and the Congress of Vienna (1814) brought a political settlement to Napoleon’s aggression. Beethoven’s brother Casper Carl (b.1774) passed away on November 15, 1815, after a prolonged period of illness, Ludwig having contributed to medical costs and family support. In a dying statement Carl appointed Ludwig the custodian of his only child, Karl, but Johanna, the mother (1786–​1868), contested Ludwig’s right to assume this responsibility. The composer had opposed the union from the onset, believing Johanna to be an unfit wife and mother. The ensuing legal battle was costly for the composer in both financial and emotional terms, but he finally won custody of Karl in 1816.

Factual Information The autograph of this work bears the date November 1816 and is currently at the Beethoven-​Haus in Bonn. It was originally published by Sigmund Anton Steiner in early 1817. (See op. 90 for information about Steiner.) This is the first work that the composer insisted be designated for the Hammerklavier, meaning for the piano. The work is dedicated to Baroness Dorothea von Ertmann (née Graumann, 1781–​ 1849), an excellent pianist who studied with the composer starting in 1803. In 1824 she and her husband moved to Milan, Italy. Early claims that she was the intended recipient of the “Immortal Beloved” love letter found in Beethoven’s effects have been discounted.

231

 

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Observations Concept

This is the first of the final five sonatas designated as “late.” It presents a short, lyrical opening movement in Sonata-​Allegro form, a march, and a transcendental slow interlude with a cadenza that leads to a large Sonata-​Allegro movement in which the development section is a fugue with a subject drawn from the first theme of the movement. The cyclic return of a fragment of the first movement’s opening paves the way for a technique that was often used by later composers including Brahms, Scriabin, and Prokofiev.

Possible Connections Between Movements

The first theme of the first movement and the main theme of the fourth movement both open with phrases that end on the note B (measures 1–​2 and 33–​34 respectively). The first theme of the first movement skips up an octave from a′ to a′′ to introduce its second phrase, then moves down the scale step-​wise (upbeat to measures 3–​4). The second part of the fugue subject of the fourth movements presents a similar pattern, albeit in a different range (upbeat to measures 126–​28 [127–​29]). The figure presented as the second idea in the first movement (upbeat to measure 17 and the ensuing downbeat) forecasts the shape of the opening theme of the fourth movement (measures 33–​34).

First movement:  A  major—​Etwas Lebhaft und mit der innisten Empfindung (Somewhat lively with innermost feeling), Allegretto, ma non troppo—​6/​8—​ Sonata-​Allegro, no repeats, coda Exposition

The exposition is very compact, with a virtually seamless progression from section to section and an unusual persistence in avoiding resolutions to the home key or its dominant. Such avoidance in the gentle setting presented in this movement possibly suggests anticipation or yearning.

Measure(s) 1–​6

The opening phrase begins and ends on the dominant. The second phrase opens on the submedian and moves to the third phrase that resolves with a deceptive cadence.

7–​16

A repetition of the opening phrase ushers in new harmony and is extended, hovering on a secondary dominant in E major (the dominant of the home key), but it once again resolves deceptively to the submediant.

 

O pu s  1 0 1

233

Upbeat to The fragment that serves as a second theme is repeated to 17–​34 resolve on the first inversion of the dominant (E major), finally reaching root position at measure 25. The remainder of the exposition clearly rests in E major, closing with gentle syncopated cadences.

Development

Measure(s)

The development, but twenty-​two measures long, is based on the opening phrase of the exposition and its extension. 35–​52

The opening phrase of the exposition is repeated. A fragment is built and shortened yet again, the process passing through f ♯ minor (measures 40–​43) and b minor (measures 47–​48) and coming to rest with a fermata on a sonority that functions as a half-​cadence in c♯ minor. Upbeat to A fragment of the opening phrase in c♯ minor leads 53–​56 to its full statement in a minor before moving to the recapitulation.

Recapitulation Measure(s)

58–​68

The opening theme as it appeared in measures 5–​16, is now slightly compressed and transposed to relate to the tonic.

Upbeat to 69–​84

The second theme area is restated with its closing cadential resolutions in the tonic.

85–​102

A diminished seventh sonority ushers in a coda based on the second theme fragment, its extension, and syncopated punctuation.

Second movement: F major—​Lebhaft. Marschmässig. Vivace alla Marcia—​4/​4—​ March and Trio da capo. ||:A:|:B:||:C:|D||A|B|| (the D section is without repeats) Concept

This march can be cited as a good example of a highly disjunct texture that incorporates large skips, often-​cited characteristics of Beethoven’s late keyboard style. The vitality of the dotted rhythmic pattern is enhanced by the composer’s often having substituted sixteenth rests for dots.

 

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234

Measure(s) Upbeat to Frequent use of the flat two and six of the scale gives a 1–​11 (12) sardonic flavor to this section. The first ending at measure 8 cadences in C major; the second ending is extended, emphasizing F major. Upbeat to 12–​35 (13–​36)

36–​54 (37–​56) Trio

The second section is developmental, presenting a fragment of the opening theme in imitation between the right-​hand and left-​hand parts, opening in A major and moving rapidly through many keys (some merely implied) including d minor, C major, E major and minor, g minor, f minor, and D♭ major. The composer’s pedal markings extend from measure 31 to measure 35, mixing tonic and supertonic harmonies in D♭ major.

The return of the dominant of the home key, introduced as a tremolo pedal point, and its persistence establish F major as the goal of the final cadence. Upbeat In B♭ major, the first 10 measures present a canon, the left to 55–​94 hand following the right hand The autograph shows that (57–​96) this section should be repeated. The first edition omits the second repeat sign at measure 64 (66), thereby raising questions as to the authenticity of repeating this segment. At measure 65 (67) a second section of the canon is introduced without repeat signs, now the right hand following the left hand At measure 84 (86) a re-​transition suggests the rhythmic energy of the march and at measure 91 (93) introduces a segment of the march that leads to the da capo.

Third movement: a minor—​Langsam und sehnsuchsvoll (slow and full of longing), Adagio, ma non troppo, con affetto—​2/​4—​through-​composed Concept

The German indication does not appear in the autograph, but it is in the first edition. The first edition also directs the use of “one string” (that is, the soft pedal), stated twice, once in German and once in Italian. The release of the pedal is shown at the end of the cadenza (measure 20) as gradually adding strings, an effect possible on period pianos but not on today’s piano. These indications suggest the sensitivity of this short but profound slow movement.

 

O pu s  1 0 1

Measure(s)

235

1–​8

Four measures in a minor are followed by four measures that lead toward and resolve in C major.

9–​16

An ornamental figure introduced in measure 1 is used as the basis of free imitation between the right and the left hand, opening in C major, passing through e minor, and evolving into a series of diminished seventh sonorities.

17–​20

Opening in the dominant of the home key, it never reaches a resolution but rather returns to a dominant chord, marked with a fermata that is followed by a cadenza written with small-​note eights and sixteenths and marked “non presto.”

21–​32

The opening two phrases of the first movement are stated, a cyclic return that is acknowledged by the composer’s indication “Zeitmass des ersten Stükes” (In the tempo of the first movement). A fragment from the end of the second phrase (measures 25–​27) is repeated and leads to a measure marked presto. A fast descending right-​hand scale and trills usher in the tempo of the final movement, and dominant chords, accompanied by a trill on the dominant, create tension for the onset of the final movement.

Fourth movement:  A  major—​ Geschwind, doch nicht zu sehr, und mit Entschlossenheit (Quickly, but not too much so, and with determination) Allegro—​2/​4—​Sonata-​Allegro in which the development section is a four-​voice fugue, repeat exposition Exposition Measure(s) Upbeat to 33–​80

81–​9 0

The first section has two parts. The first one presents a theme with imitative phrases between the hands, opening with the right hand leading, then, at the upbeat to measure 41, with the left hand leading. A second section, still in A major, uses a fragment of the opening theme imitatively as an accompaniment under a more lyrical line (measures 65–​80). It ends with six eighth-​note chords, possibly announcing an element of the fugue subject (measures 79–​80). A transition unfolds with another imitative motive and modulates to E major, the dominant.

 

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236

Upbeat to 91–​113

The second theme is a spin-​off of the opening theme, first using four sixteenth notes imitatively, then expanding the motive with syncopated chords, each hand taking the material in turn. A cadential figure is derived from the first phrase of the opening theme, the four sixteenth notes followed by a quarter-​note downbeat now becoming four eighth notes followed by a quarter-​note downbeat, reminiscent of the eighth-​note chords that appeared at the end of the transition.

Upbeat to 114–​22 (115–​23)

The second ending is extended with a rising line of half notes. It ends with a shift from A major to a minor attended by a fermata, an abrupt dynamic change from pianissimo to fortissimo, and a change in key signature.

Development Measure(s)

As noted above, the development is a four-​voice fugue. 123–​36 (124–​37)

The fugue subject is derived from combining a fragment of the opening theme of the exposition with the eighth-​note figure appearing at the end of the transition, the closing section, and the extended second ending. The countersubject is a free retrograde inversion of the subject.

123–​51 (124–​52)

The keys of the entrances of the four voices are a minor, C major, F major, and a minor, a nontraditional sequence.

149–​54 (150–​55)

The eighth-​note series appears in stretto, a device that becomes increasingly important as the fugue unfolds. For example, at measures 209–​13 (210–​14), the head of the subject appears in stretto.

Upbeat to 224–​31 (225–​32)

A dominant pedal point is introduced in the lowest register of the keyboard. The lowest note indicated did not exist on some keyboards of the period, but the composer wrote “contra E” in the score as an indication of his wish. The rising dominant arpeggio that ushers in the recapitulation can surely be counted as one of the most effective dominant-​tonic arrivals in all keyboard literature.

 

O pu s  1 0 1

Recapitulation Measure(s)

237

All events of the exposition are present. 244–​52 (245–​53)

A sixteenth-​note transition between the two sections of A is expanded here into a challenging double-​note passage.

305–​61 (306–​62)

The coda opens with the second ending of the exposition as a model, but this time the surprise modulation is to d minor. The composer teases the listener, for a new fugue seems imminent, but the announcement of the subject veers away from imitation and moves to F major. Transition material unfolds and settles into a written-​out eighth-​note trill in the bass under fragments of the A theme. The tempo slows, but a burst of rising eighth-​note chords marked fortissimo ends the movement brilliantly.

 

 

Opus 106 (“Hammerklavier”)

Biographical Snapshot Beethoven continued to be embroiled in the battle for custody of his nephew after his brother’s death, having deemed the boy’s mother Johanna unfit. She won a temporary victory after the composer admitted he was not of noble birth, the prefix to his last name being van (thought to be of Dutch origin), rather than the typical indication of nobility:  von. Beethoven appealed the court’s decision and won final custody after about a year (in 1816). That Beethoven was experiencing financial difficulties is shown by a letter to his longtime friend Ferdinand Ries (1784–​1838). Ries was living in London at this time, and the composer sought his help in getting this sonata published. The letter, though undated, shows a London postmark of April 6, 1819. It contains a list of corrections to the sonata and the expression of an astonishing degree of flexibility on the composer’s part in acquiescing to publishers’ wishes: Circumstances are the cause of this:  and may God help me!—​until the Archduke R[udolf] finds himself in a better position, which may not happen for a whole year. It is just terrible to think how all this has come about, and how my income has vanished … Should the sonata not be suitable for London, I could send another one: or you could omit the Largo and begin straight away with the fugue … which is the last movement; or you could use the first movement and then the Adagio, and then for the third movement the Scherzo—​and omit no. 4 with the Largo and Allegro resolute. Or you could just take the first movement and the Scherzo and let them form the whole sonata. I leave it to you to do as you think best.1

  AND II:804-​5.

1

239

 

240

The Sonata s

The sonata was published in its present form by Artaria. Beethoven is reported to have said to his publisher: “Now there you have a sonata that will keep the pianists busy when it is played fifty years hence.”2

Factual Information Artaria announced the publication of the op.  106 in the Wiener Zeitung on September 15, 1819. Regent’s Harmonium Institution in London registered the work at Stationers Hall on October 1, 1819, and again on December 24. It was listed erroneously as op. 88 and presented in two parts, the introduction and fugue being listed separately. The autographs are no longer extant. Fragments of corrections for the London edition are in the Beethoven-​Haus in Bonn, as well as the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge. The Artaria first edition was dedicated to the Archduke Rudolf as the Cardinal Archbishop of Olmütz, a holy station to which the archduke ascended on March 9, 1820.3

Observations Concept

The op. 106 is the largest of the thirty-​two sonatas, considered by musicians of the nineteenth century to be Beethoven’s greatest keyboard sonata. Yet this work has not taken its place among his most popular ones, possibly owing to the extreme technical demands and complexity of the fugue, or to the long, slow-​moving Adagio sostenuto. Fans of the work consider it neglected undeservedly, while for others, performers and audiences, it remains enigmatic and unsuccessful. The structure of the sonata is patterned after earlier four-​movement sonatas, the second movement being the scherzo movement and the third the slow movement. The final movement is unusual in that it is a fugue. It is ushered in by an improvisatory section in which several thematic snippets are presented as possible material, but each is quickly abandoned. It is as if Beethoven included pages from his sketchbook in the body of the sonata itself and a musical description of the awakening of inspiration as the fugue subject dawned.

Tempi

This is the only sonata for which the composer provided metronome markings, those for the first two movements being unaccountably fast in the opinion of most performers.

2   Wilhelm von Lenz, Beethoven: Eine Kunst-​Studie( Hamburg: Hoffman & Campe, 1860), V:32. This quotation is also cited by Maynard Solomon in his Beethoven (New York: Schirmer,1977), 392. 3   See Chapter 2, pp. XX–​XX for commentary on the nickname “Hammerklavier.”

 

O pu s 1 0 6 ( “Hammerklav i e r ” )

Possible Connections between Movements

241

A focus on a falling interval of a third is prominent in the openings of the first, second, and third movements (measures 2, 1, and 2 respectively). The opening of the first movement (upbeat to measure 1 and measure 1) and the fugue subject of the fourth movement (in the left hand at measure 16) share a leap of more than an octave from the root to the third of the key. Similarity of scalar passage work exists in the second theme area of the first movement (measures 47–​50, etc.) and the second half of the fugue subject in the fourth (measures 17–​25).

First movement: B-​flat major—​Allegro—​alla breve—​Sonata-​Allegro, repeat exposition, coda Exposition Measure(s)

Upbeat to 1–​46

The opening phrase is among Beethoven’s most famous motivic ideas. A second more lyrical idea unfolds (upbeat to measures 5–​16) and is followed by a vigorous rhythmic idea that recalls the texture of the opening (measures 17–​34). The opening motive returns in B♭ major and is restated in D major (the dominant of the second theme area), and a two-​note fragment is used to emphasize the dominant preparation (upbeat to measures 35–​4 4).

Upbeat to 47–​99

The second theme is announced after a key signature change to G major. It unfolds by presenting eighth-​note passage work as well as a more lyrical quarter-​note texture and a reference to the opening motive (measures 91–​95).

100–​121

A chorale-​like theme in half notes serves as the closing idea. It is repeated with a sustained trill and followed by staccato chords over a broken-​ octave bass that is reminiscent of the third idea of the A section (measures 112–​21).

122–​23 (125)

The dotted rhythm of the opening motive returns in the first ending.

 

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242

Development Measure(s)

124–​33 (130–​39)

The staccato chords of the closing section open the development in c minor. At measure 136 the key signature changes to that of three flats.

Upbeat to 134–​66 (140–​72)

A canon between two voices at the upbeats to measures 138 and 139 (144 and 145) develops into a fugue-​like texture with the entrance of a third voice at the upbeat to measure 148 (154) and a fourth at the upbeat to measure 157 (163).

Upbeat to 167–​200 (173–​206)

Free imitation based on the same rhythmic figure continues, sometimes presenting fragments of the figure.

201–​8 (207–​414)

The half-​note theme from the closing section of the exposition opens in e minor with a key signature change to that of two sharps.

209–​12 (215–​18)

A segment of the second theme from the exposition appears in B major.

Upbeat to 213–​26 (219–​32)

With another key signature change at the upbeat to measure 214 (220), the dotted rhythm of the opening theme returns with imitative entrances that suggest ever-​increasing stretto.

224–​26 (230–​32)

All appearances of the note A are with sharps in all the early printed editions. However, an extant sketch shows naturals on these notes. This discrepancy has led to an unresolved dispute as to which notes to use, each version suggesting its own underlying harmonic progression.

Recapitulation Measure(s)

All events from the exposition are present. 239–​66 (245–​72)

The second and third parts of the opening theme are now in G♭ major, the change acting as a “turnaround,” along with a short key signature change to two sharps at measures 267–​72 (273–​78).

273–​361 (279–​367)

The home key signature returns, and the second theme and closing themes are stated in the home key.

 

O pu s 1 0 6 ( “Hammerklav i e r ” )

362–​405 (368–​411)

243

The broken-​octave passage is extended to form a link to the coda. It opens with a restatement of the chorale-​like closing theme evolving to accompanying trills in both hands at measures 362–​72 (368–​78). Following a brief reference to the opening segment of the second theme at measures 373–​76 (379–​82), the dotted rhythm of the opening motive is reworked with contrasting dynamic changes, a long diminuendo, and a final two-​chord fortissimo.

Second movement:  Scherzo—​B-​flat major—​A ssai vivace—​3/​4—​Minuet (Scherzo) and trio, repeats written out Concept

Measure(s)

Although the structure is traditional, it is very compact. The repeats are written out in order to incorporate variety in the shape of register changes and exchanges of motives between the right-​hand and left-​hand parts. The da capo is as long as the original statement. 81–​113

A jovial intermezzo, marked presto, is inserted between the trio section and the return of the main body of the scherzo. It is improvisatory in that it does not use material from the main body of the movement but presents a prestissimo single measure (112) featuring an upward grace-​note scale followed by a fermata, and a return to the opening tempo that presents a short tremolo on the dominant with a minor ninth.

Upbeat to 161–​75

The coda represents the composer’s humor at its finest. A musical argument between B♭, the note representing the home key, (sometimes written humorously as A♯) and B♮ ensues. The tonic is attended by forte dynamic ranges and the rogue note is always attended by soft indications, as if it is trying to sneak in a bogus resolution. Four measures of fortissimo octaves marked presto (measures 168–​71) finally settle the dispute, and the final four measures, marked Tempo I, end the piece quietly with the opening motivic idea

 

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244

Third movement:  f-​sharp minor—​Adagio sostenuto—​6/​8—​Sonata-​Allegro, no repeats, extended coda Exposition Measure(s)

1 2–​13

14–​15 and 22–​23

27–​38

frequent diminished seventh sonorities either as a Vii seventh or a dominant ninth.

Two striking harmonic shifts to G major suggest a Neapolitan relationship. Each returns to the home key. (Refer to the passage starting at measure 26 of the second movement of the op. 2, no. 2, where briefly the same harmonic relationship occurs using the same keys.) A second idea in f ♯ minor is announced with a stride accompaniment in the left hand. The theme soars in an improvisatory, ornamental style and is supported by a syncopated inner voice.

39–​4 4

A transition to the second theme features imitative voice levels and a key signature change to two sharps.

45–​6 0

The second theme is in D major and features the right crossing over the left.

61–​69

A closing section veers off into B major chords (measures 61–​62) before returning to D major.

Development Measure(s)

The introductory first measure was added by the composer just before publication. A chorale-​like opening theme in f ♯ minor unfolds with

The development section is but seventeen measures long and uses the opening theme of the movement. 73–​75 76–​80 81–​84

85–​87

The key signature changes to three sharps in support of the key of f ♯ minor.

The key signature changes to three flats in support of moving to and passing through E♭ major.

The key signature changes the three flats to naturals in support of a modulatory passage the moves briefly through F♯ major and c♯ minor.

The home key signature of three sharps returns along with the dominant of the home key of f ♯ minor.

 

O pu s 1 0 6 ( “Hammerklav i e r ” )

Recapitulation Measure(s)

The recapitulation presents some version of all events of the exposition in order. 88–​112

The opening theme is transformed, in part by using highly ornamental passage work (measures 88–​103).

100–​101 and 108–​9

The Neapolitan-​like harmonic shifts take place.

113–​23

The passage featuring the left-​hand stride bass now opens in D major and unfolds in b minor.

124–​29

The transitional imitative passage is laid out with octaves and double thirds replacing the single notes of the exposition.

130–​53

The second theme and the closing section unfold in the parallel major of the home key (F♯ major).

Upbeats to 154–​87

Interlude

Unmeasured Measure(s)

245

1 2 3–​7 8 9–​10

An unusually long, complex coda is presented. It features a restatement of the second theme in G major that expands to a significant climactic moment (measures 158–​65), a restatement of the opening theme (measures 166–​74) with one departure into the Neapolitan-​like harmony, and a final resolution to F♯ major.

A series of improvisatory gestures leads to the fugue. It is as if Beethoven included ideas for the last movement from his sketchbook, sharing ideas he considered but rejected, as well as the excitement of discovering the idea he finally used. A Largo on the repeated tone F rises to G♭. A single measure of imitative material in G♭ major unfolds.

Hesitant chords are followed by a section marked Un poco più vivace that features rapid scales in B major. An allegro in g♯ minor is imitative and vigorous, and seems like possible rondo material.

Hesitant chords move from g♯ minor through E major and c♯ minor to A major.

After a cadenza-​like guesture featuring descending passage work and a series of trills, mprovisatory chords in A major and G major return to A major.

 

The Sonata s

246

11–​15

The arrival of the dominant on F, the dominant of the key of the fugue (B♭ major), is prolonged with right-​hand trills and a descending scale in sixteenth notes. The B♭ major tonic chord arrives with great excitement to usher in the fugue subject.

Fourth movement: B-​flat major—​Allegro risoluto—​3/​4—​three-​voice, quadruple fugue Concept

This enormous, complex fugue presents a challenge to both performer and listener. Its dizzying skips, labyrinth of sixteenth-​note passage work, trill figures, chromatic harmonic inflections, double notes, and awkward disposition of voice levels all make it extremely difficult for the performer to execute. Moreover, its length and complexity result in many listeners’ becoming lost or feeling adrift. Encompassing the fugue is, nevertheless, a rewarding undertaking, for it represents a unique pinnacle in the composer’s musical thinking and, indeed, in all literature for the piano.

Measure(s) 16–​25 (counting from the beginning of the interlude)

The subject opens with a leap (usually the interval of a tenth) followed by a trill (designated here as letter A). Then a sixteenth-​note scalar passage unfolds (designated here as letter B). Its entry is in the middle voice (designated here as mv). The complete subject is A + B, but each is often used as a separate entity.

26–​32

The second entry of the subject (A + B) in the upper voice (designated here as uv) enters in the dominant. The countersubject (designated here as letter C) consists of octave skips followed by a more lyrical group of eighth notes that end with the rhythmic gesture of an eighth note, an eighth rest, and a quarter note (designated here as letter D); C and D are often used separately.

35

The lowermost voice (designated as lv) enters with the subject in the tonic A + B, and B is extended into an episode with fragments of C and D.

 

O pu s 1 0 6 ( “Hammerklav i e r ” )

247

Upbeat to 48–​52

Entries of A unfold in stretto in all voices.

53–​65

An episode unfolds using fragments of B, C, and D.

65–​84

A + B statement (uv) appears, with a continuation of B shifting to the lv at measure 71 and extended added phrases drawn from C. At measure 80, the head of A appears in octaves in the left hand at close intervals. Another episode opens in G♭ major with a key signature change, using free imitation between the three voices.

85–​96 96–​129

Fragments of C and D are combined in a stretto-​like texture. At measure 111 the trilled head of A joins in, and it soon unfolds in stretto with increasing excitement.

130–​52

An extended episode unfolds, its first nine measures a contrapuntal treatment of measures 85–​94.

153–​79

A second exposition emerges, presenting free retrograde (cancrizone or “crab”) entries of the subject (A + B), in the mv at measure 153, the uv at the upbeat to measure 159, and the lv at the upbeat to measure 169.

180–​95

This episode combines B in retrograde with its inversion.

196–​207

A + B appears in the lv.

208–​49

A third exposition presents the inversion of the subject (A + B), entering in the uv at measure 208, mv at measure 216, and lv at measure 229. The intervallic leaps and trills follow with increasing intensity, reaching a stretto-​like texture, both right-​side-​up and inverted, at measures 243–​46.

250–​78

A fourth exposition is drawn from the eighth-​note figure of the countersubject (D), now in quarter notes, entering closely in the uv, mv, and lv.

279–​93

The opening subject (A + B) is combined with D as presented in the fourth exposition.

294–​307

A + B in the mv is presented in stretto with their inversion in the lv; then at the upbeat to measure 301 an A + B inversion in the uv is combined in stretto with a right-​side-​up statement of A + B in the lv.

 

The Sonata s

248

308–​33

An episode unfolds using invertible counterpoint. At measure 318 fragments of C and D become prominent, first in the uv, then in the lv.

333–​4 4

A enters in stretto in the uv and mv, but at measure 335 the uv breaks off, and in measure 337 it reverts to material from C and D.

345–​58

Fragments of A + B enter in the lv followed by stretto entrances in the mv at measure 349 and the uv at measure 351.

359–​68

A + B enters in uv combined with fragments of A and B in other voices.

369–​80

A dominant pedal point underlies fragments of A and B.

381–​400

A poco adagio based on the trills of A acts as a three-​ measure preparation for the return to Tempo I, with a fragment of B followed by a series of rising skips and trills drawn from A to bring the movement to a brilliant close.

 

Opus 109

Biographical Snapshot There is almost no evidence of Beethoven’s daily life from September 1821 to May 1822:  no sketchbooks but only letters to publishers and few secondary accounts. It has been speculated that this void was due to a series of illnesses that beset the composer, possibly rheumatic fever followed by jaundice.

Factual Information The first movement of this work is thought to have been written as a separate piece, a commission from Friedrich Starke (1774–​1835) to be used in a collection of small pieces. Starke was a composer and horn player who published a piano method around 1820. Beethoven’s unpaid secretary at the time was Franz Oliva (1786–​1848), who suggested that the piece be used as the first movement of one of the sonatas promised to the Berlin publisher Adolf Martin Schlesinger (1769–​ 1838), who did, indeed, publish the sonata in November 1821. The work is dedicated to Maximiliane Brentano (1802–​1861), the eldest daughter of a Frankfurt merchant, Franz Brentano. Many scholars believe that evidence supports the idea that Maximiliane’s mother Antonie (1780–​1869) was the object of the love letter found among the composer’s effects after his death. The letter was written on July 6 or 7, 1812, to the Immortal Beloved, but likely was never mailed. The autograph of the op. 109 is in the Library of Congress, Washington, DC.

249

 

The Sonata s

250

Observations Concept

Along with the op. 110, this work is the most frequently played of the last five sonatas. It represents the profundity of late Beethoven in three contrasting movements, a combination attractive to both performers and audiences. The lyric, improvisatory character of the first movement contrasts sharply with the driving energy of the second. The final movement acts as both a slow movement and the focal point of the work, achieving transcendental heights through its use of prolonged trills.

Possible Connections between Movements

The first, second, and third movements all open with the interval of a rising or falling third (upbeat to m. 1, 1, and 1 respectively).

First movement:  E major, contrasting sections:  Vivace, ma non troppo, 2/​4—​ Adagio espressivo, 3/​4—​Sonata-​Allegro, no repeats Exposition Measure(s) Upbeat This short opening theme is based on a two-​note rhythmic to 1–​8 figure in sixteenth notes that alternates between the right hand and the left. The a♯ in measure 5 moves the theme toward a B major, the expected dominant. Measure(s) 9–​15

A surprise diminished seventh chord opens the Adagio expressivo section, functioning as the VII7 in c♯ minor, which in turn acts as the supertonic in B major. Improvisatory but measured arpeggios alternate with expressive melodic fragments that end in a rising B major scale

Development Measure(s)

Upbeat to 16–​21

The opening theme is stated in the left hand.

Measure(s)

Upbeat to 22–​48 A new melodic line in the upper voice is attended by a long slur and the indication sempre legato, the message repeated at measure 36 as the long slur ends. Sforzando indications followed by piano on the second beats of measures 33–​41 create bell-​like syncopation. At measure 42 a crescendo marking paves the way for the recapitulation.

 

O pu s  1 0 9

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Recapitulation Measure(s)

Upbeat to The first theme is restated with a widely spaced 49–​57 texture. Descending octaves in the left hand create a more sustained sonority through notation and the addition of slurs.

Measure(s)

58–​65

Measure(s)

Upbeat to The coda features fragments of the opening theme 66–​99 interrupted by a brief chorale-​like phrase (measures 78–​85). Noteworthy is the flat six in figurations in measures 87–​89 and at measure 91. Expressive two-​note slurs attend the melodic line starting at measure 89.

The Adagio espressivo section functions in the home key of E major, much as it did in the exposition with the exception of measures 61–​62, where a key signature change supports climactic arpeggios that cadence in C major, introducing a striking color. The composer’s penchant for placing C major as a color amidst an E major tonality can also be observed in the “turnaround” of the first movement of the op. 14, no. 1, and the introduction of the C section in the rondo movement of the op. 90.

2nd movement: e minor—​Prestissimo—​6/​8—​Sonata-​Allegro, no repeats Exposition Measure(s)

1–​69

The opening theme is driving and rhythmic. Modulation to the dominant minor occurs at measures 31–​33, just after the introduction of a new melodic motive marked un poco espresssivo. The driving rhythm throughout generates strong unity in the entire exposition.

Development Measure(s)

70–​104

A lyrical phrase in the two upper voices unfolds in imitative entrances over a tremolo bass on B. At measure 83 an unexpected shift to C major ushers in a chorale-​ like section that fragments and restates the phrase. The section ends with a half-​cadence in the key of b minor, rather than one leading back to the tonic.

 

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Recapitulation Measure(s)

105–​77

The restatement of the material from the exposition is regular. A short “turnaround” at measures 112–​19 leads to the second idea in the home key. It is extended slightly at measures 124–​31. Extended cadential chords form a short coda (measures 168–​77)

Third movement:  E major—​Gesangvoll, mit innigister Empfindung (song-​like, with innermost feeling)—​3/​4—​Theme and Six Variations Theme Measure(s)

1–​16

The theme is meditative, opening with a falling third that echoes the rising third of the first movement. Its sixteen measures are divided into two sets of eight, each marked to be repeated. It modulates to the dominant at the end of the first set of eight measures and builds to a climax in measure 14 on a dominant ninth chord marked sforzando in the home key.

Variation One Measure(s)

17–​32 (35) The variation retains the repeat signs for its two sections and unfolds with a more active melodic line over a stride bass in the left hand. It marks the beginning of using shorter note values for each variation in order to increase the flow, sometimes called a rhythmic crescendo.

Variation Two Measure(s)

33–​64 (36–​67)

This variation is a so-​called double variation in that the repeat of each section is written out and presents different material. The first eight measures feature a sixteenth-​note pattern divided between the right hand and the left. Its repeat at measure 41 (44) presents a more lyrical line, its opening falling third reminiscent of the theme. The line unfolds in an imitative pattern between two voices that rises as it is repeated. At measure 49 (52) the second half of the theme presents the sixteenth-​note pattern again, and its repeat presents the lyrical material.

 

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Variation Three Measure(s)

65–​96 (68–​99)

Marked Allegro vivace, this variation features nonstop sixteenth-​note passage work, first in the right hand and then in the left. Its repeats are written out. This variation marks the end of the rhythmic crescendo that began in the first variation.

97–​112 (100–​119)

Marked Etwas langsamer, als das Thema (Somewhat slower than the theme), this variation presents a time signature of 9/​8, its two parts being marked to be repeated with first and second endings for each. The texture is freely imitative in four voice levels. Its second half builds to a climax at measure 109 (114), the only point in the movement at which a fortissimo is indicated.

113–​52 (120–​59)

Marked Allegro, ma non troppo, with an alla breve time signature, this movement is often referred to as a fugue or a fugetta because of its contrapuntal, imitative texture. It does not however, present the usual exposition of a fugue, its character being more like that of a ricercare. The repeats of the theme are written out, and the second half is repeated twice (that is, played three times).

153–​87 (160–​94)

Marked Tempo primo del tema (in the first tempo of the theme) with a return to a time signature of 3/​4, this variation reintroduces the mood of the theme with a pedal tone of B. The pedal point develops into a written-​out slow trill at measure 158 (165) that increases in speed through the use smaller note values. The repeats are written out. At the onset of the second part of the theme, the B pedal point becomes a long left-​hand trill at measures 168–​76 (175–​83). The written-​out repeat of this section places the trill in the right hand with eighth notes outlining the melodic contour of the theme interspersed

Variation Four Measure(s)

Variation Five Measure(s)

Variation Six Measure(s)

 

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with eighth rests at measures 177–​87 (184–​94). The trills create a transcendental atmosphere. Dominant harmony is extended three measures to prepare for the restatement of the theme at measures 185–​87 (192–​94). Theme Measure(s)

188–​203 (195–​210)

The theme is stated in its original form with a few changed details without repeats.

 

Opus 110

Biographical Snapshot Beethoven likely was still recovering from a prolonged period of illness (see the op.  109 biographical snapshot). This is the period during which he composed the Missa solemnis, the work Beethoven stated was his greatest achievement. His philosophy, as expressed in letters and conversation books written during this time, was that of wanting to serve the muse with only the most elevated works, and that whatever works were written to appeal to a “popular” market were created only to provide a modest livelihood. In reality, the composer was continuing to pay for his nephew Karl’s education.

Factual Information The autograph bears the date December 25, 1821, believed to be the day the composer completed the work. The sonata was published by Schlesinger in July 1822 in Berlin and Paris. It was published at almost the same time by Steiner in Vienna and Clementi in London. A second autograph containing the passages from the Adagio, ma non troppo to the end of the work is also extant. It is believed to have been prepared by the composer to correct mistakes in the Schlesinger publications. The London first edition shows a dedication to Antonie Brentano, and there is correspondence from the composer to other publishers indicating that this dedication was supposed to have been in their publications as well. Many scholars believe that Antonie was the object of Beethoven’s famous love letter of 1812 to the Immortal Beloved, a document that apparently was never mailed but was found among the composer’s effects after his death. Later Beethoven dedicated the op. 120 (Diabelli Variations) to her. Almost all later editions of this work bear no dedication.

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Overall Observations Concept

Along with the op. 109, this is the most frequently performed of the five late sonatas. It contains both improvisatory recitative-​like sections and fugal writing. The third movement combines a slow movement and a fugue in a structure that is both challenging and elevating, moving from the despairing depths of the arioso sections to a great closing climax that is glorious in its affirmation.

Possible Connections between Movements

The melodic outline of the opening of the first movement (measures 1–​4) forecasts the fugue subject (upbeat to measures 27–​30, after the Adagio, ma non troppo). The theme of the second movement, some have observed, is a free inversion of the opening melody of the first movement; it may also forecast the descending line of the arioso.

1st Movement:  A-​ flat major—​ Moderato cantabile molto expressive—​ 3/​ 4—​ Sonata-​Allegro form, no repeats Exposition Measure(s)

1–​11

The first theme is stated with mostly chordal harmonic support, then expanded in a right-​ hand singing line with a left-​hand sixteenth-​note accompaniment.

12–​19

Thirty-​second-​note arpeggios, marked with a staccato on each set of four, form a transition to the second theme area.

20–​38

The second theme area is in the traditional dominant, E♭ major. It presents several lyrical ideas: broken octaves in a high register (measures 20–​23), a rising line accompanied by descending trills (measures 25–​27), another rising line with sixteenth-​note chordal accompaniment (measures 28–​30), and a final rising sixteenth-​note figure in the right hand (measures 36–​37). After a clear settling into E♭ major, a measure of transition presents a D♭ broken octave to move to the opening of the development section.

 

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Development Measure(s)

40–​55

The first phrase of the opening theme is repeated in the right hand, moving through f minor, D♭ major, and b♭ minor. Starting at measure 44, the left-​hand accompaniment is made up of rising and falling scale fragments. Crescendo and diminuendo markings attend every other measure (measures 45, 47, 49, 51, and 53).

56–​78

The first theme is attended by an extended ”turnaround” that unfolds in D♭ major starting at measure 63 and moves to E major with a change in key signature (measure 69). The transitional arpeggios and the first phrase of the second theme remain in E major (measures 70–​77).

78–​96

A transitional measure (78) returns to the home key, and the remainder of the second theme area unfolds.

97–​116

A coda grows out of the final passage of the second theme area. It incorporates a return of the transitional arpeggios (measures 105–​10), as well as fragments of the opening phrase of the first theme. The movement ends quietly.

Recapitulation Measure(s)

Second movement: f minor—​Allegro molto—​2/​4-​minuet and trio pattern, both sections marked with repeats in first part, no repeats in trio, da capo written out, coda Concept

Measure(s)

The mood of this movement, which is reputed to have been derived from a well-​known drinking song, is boisterous. 1–​40 (1–​42)

The first eight measures are repeated. The second section consists of four sets of eight measures each, repeated with first and second endings.

Upbeat to 41–​95 (43–​97)

The trio section features irregular (difficult) passage work in the right hand over a syncopated bass line in the left hand, mostly in groups of eight measures.

 

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96–​143 (98–​147)

The written-​out da capo repeats both sections, the first section repeat being written out to incorporate a four-​measure ritardando.

144–​58 (148–​62)

A coda features syncopated chords and measure-​long rests and resolves to F major, possibly to act as the dominant of the opening phrase of the next movement, which is in b♭ minor.

3rd movement: As noted, this movement combines both a slow arioso dolente and a final fugal movement in a structure that is unique and too complex to be summarized by relating it to traditional patterns. It unfolds as follows: Introductory improvisation Measure(s)

1–​6

7–​26

Upbeat to 27–​114

Adagio ma non troppo is free, presenting several areas of tonality, rhythmic patterns, and tempi. After opening in b♭ minor, three measures move to a recitative that rises to a dominant minor ninth sonority built on E♭. Then a three-​chord progression marked Andante leads to an Adagio with a prolonged sonority on a B major-​minor seventh chord in the left hand, over which the seventh is repeated in sixteenth and thirty-​second notes. Pairs of these notes are marked with ties (or slurs) and the fingering 4–​3. Whether or not to play the second note of each pair is a matter of dispute. The final measures resolve briefly to E major, but a new progression leads to the dominant seventh of the a♭ minor arioso. This a♭ minor section is in 12/​16 and is marked Adagio ma non troppo. Additional indications are klangender gesang (mournfully singing) and arioso dolente (sad arioso). A single line unfolds over a repeated chord accompaniment, creating a profound, meditative mood. A three-​voice fugue in A♭ major with a 6/​8 time signature opens with a subject that seems to be drawn from the opening phrase of the first movement of this work. Octave doubling in the lowermost line enhances the closing climax of the fugue.

 

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Upbeat to 115–​36

A striking modulation to g minor paves the way for the repetition of the arioso with small melodic variations, the half-​step lower sonority reflecting the indication Ermattet, klangend (exhausted, mournful). A final resolution to G major with repeated tonic chords prepares the way for the final section.

Upbeat to 137–​213

The final section is marked L’istesso tempo della Fuga, poi a poi di nuovo vivente (the same tempo as the fugue, little by little with a new liveliness). The fugue subject enters in its inverted form, but gradually incorporates more sixteenth-​and thirty-​second-​ note figuration as the forward motion of the music escalates. At the upbeat to measure 175 contrapuntal writing is abandoned in favor of repeating the fugue subject with sixteenth-​note accompaniment patterns. The subject rises from the lowermost register to the uppermost, climbing higher and higher with increasing sonority and excitement. This remarkable transcendental passage culminates in an A♭ major arpeggio that proclaims a resounding spiritual victory over the dark forces of the preceding arioso sections.

 

 

Opus 111

Biographical Snapshot Beethoven endured a prolonged period of illness between 1821 and 1822. No conversation books are extant for a period of about nine months. A short notice in the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung dated January 10, 1821, confirms that the composer was recovering from rheumatic fever. As he came out of this period of illness, he began both the opp. 110 and 111, but work was sporadic because the recovery of his health was intermittent. Beethoven’s brother Johann managed business affairs for the composer and was able to negotiate good prices for new scores, thus helping him get out of debt.

Factual Information A working copy (Urschrift) of the autograph of the first movement of the op. 111 is housed at the Beethoven-​Haus in Bonn. It is dated January 13, 1822, and is believed to be the date when the work was begun, since the completion of the op. 110 was dated only a few days earlier. At some later, unkown point a fair copy (Reinschrift) of the first movement and the first draft (Urshrift) of the second were joined, this combination being housed in the Deutsche Staatsbibliotek in Berlin. Although each of these manuscripts represents a different stage of the composer’s creative process, a facisimile of this pairing has been published several times over the years and is frequently encountered. The op. 111 was the third of the trilogy of piano sonatas to be published by the Schlesinger publishing houses, first by Moritz in Paris and then from the same plates by Adolf in Berlin. The London publication by Clementi & Co. appeared only a few months later, having been registered at Stationers Hall on April 25, 1823 and presumably negotiated by Ferdinand Ries. Along with the op. 110, this sonata was originally to have been dedicated to Antonie Brentano, the woman whom scholars believe was the intended recipient of the letter to the Immortal Beloved found among Beethoven’s effects. The London edition carries this dedication. Despite these intentions, the composer wrote to the Archduke Rudolf (1788–​1831) on July 1, 261

 

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1823, “As Y[our] I[mperial] H[ighness] seemed to enjoy hearing the C minor sonata, I thought I should not be too presumptuous if I gave you the surprise of dedicating it to Your Highness.”1

Observations Concept

The two movements of this work balance each other with striking contrasts, incorporating the dramatic and the contemplative, fast and slow tempi, and minor and major keys.

Possible Connections between Movements

The dotted rhythm of the introduction to the first movement (upbeat to measure 1, etc.) foreshadows the rhythmic figure of the main theme of the second movement (upbeat to measure 1, etc.).

First movement:  c minor—​Maestoso/​Allegro con brio ed appassionato—​4/​4—​ Sonata-​Allegro with introduction and coda, exposition repeated Exposition Measure(s) Upbeat to 1–​18

19–​70

The introduction features the dotted rhythm associated with the French overture. It opens with a diminished seventh sonority introducing a phrase that half-​cadences in the home key. The progression is repeated in the subdominant, then moves quickly through b♭ minor, G♭ major, e♭ minor, D♭ major, and A♭ major, finally coming to rest on the dominant of the home key, c minor. A low-​ register written-​out trill in the left hand starts slowly and accelerates through a tempo change to the announcement of the first theme of the exposition (measures 16–​18). The opening motive (upbeat to measures 20–​23) dominates most of the exposition, restated in various ways: with extended sixteenth-​note passage work, in a four-​voiced texture, in the left hand with right-​hand passage work, and vice versa. The only respite occurs at measures 50–​55, where a more lyrical phrase in A♭ major is briefly presented.

69–​70 (71) The exposition ends with first and second endings.   AND III, p. 1054.

1

 

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Development Measure(s)

70–​91 (71–​92)

The development is based on the first theme of the exposition. It is presented first in g minor with a slight extension. A contrapuntal section at measures 76–​85 (77–​86) unfolds almost as a fugal exposition with a countersubject. This section moves from g minor through c minor and f minor. At measure 86 (87) the texture changes to feature chords in the right hand stating the first three notes of the main motive, accompanied by sixteenth-​note fragments in the left hand.

Recapitulation Measure(s)

92–​115 (93–​116) 116–​31 (117–​32) 146–​58 (147–​59)

The statement of the opening theme is substantially rewritten, shortening the first thirteen measures to four measures and rearranging the material between the hands. The lyrical section from the exposition is now in C major but is extended with new material that unfolds mostly in f minor. The ending cadence of the recapitulation is extended to lead to a coda, which presents lyrical phrases in f minor. They end in half-​cadences, the final one being repeated to establish the C major sonority, thereby creating a link to the tonality of the second movement. Some listeners may note a striking similarity to the coda of a later work by Frédéric Chopin, the Etude op. 10, no. 12 (“Revolutionary”).

2nd movement:  C major—​Arietta:  Adagio molto semplice e cantabile—​9/​16—​ Theme with Five and a Half Variations (plus two interludes and a coda) Theme Measure(s)

Upbeat to 1–​16 (1–​18)

The theme is in two parts in dotted quarter notes and dotted eighth notes. Each segment is eight measures, each marked to be repeated, each with a first and second ending. The second part opens with a four-​ measure segment in the relative minor (a minor).

 

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Variation One Measure(s)

Upbeat to 17–​32 (19–​35)

The use of shorter note values, often called a rhythmic crescendo, begins with the introduction of sixteenth notes. Repeat marks are preserved, as well as first and second endings.

Upbeat to 33–​48 (37–​54)

The rhythmic crescendo continues with the introduction of sixteenth and thirty-​second notes with the indication “L’istesso tempo,” as well as a time signature change to 6/​16. First and second endings are preserved.

Upbeat to 49–​64 (55–​72)

The last variation in the rhythmic crescendo sequence uses thirty-​second and sixty-​fourth notes, again with the indication “L’istesso tempo,” and a new time signature of 12/​32. The rapid division of three-​note units in this variation has generated the frequently encountered observation that this variation sounds “jazzy.” First and second endings are preserved.

VariatioTwo Measure(s)

Variation Three Measure(s)

Variation Four Measure(s)

Upbeat This is a “double” variation in that the repeat of each to 65–​99 part is written out and is a variation unto itself. The (73–​107) first statement of each set of eight measures presents syncopated, sustained chords in the right hand over a thirty-​second-​note tremolo in the left hand in the middle and lower registers of the keyboard. The repeat of each set of eight unfolds in the higher registers with passage work in thirty-​second notes in the right hand accompanied by staccato sixteenth notes in the left.

First Interlude Measure(s)

100–​130 This interlude is divided into three parts. The first (108–​38) six measures grow out of the preceding variation, extended thirty-​second-​note passage work in a repeated three-​measure harmonic progression. At measure 106 (114) a twelve-​measure trill passage is introduced in the right hand. Opening on the note d′′, it is joined for two measures in measure 112 (120) by a trill a♭′′, as well as a left hand trill on f ’. The right hand higher trill continues and climbs chromatically to d′′′. The left hand now reenters in the lowermost

 

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register of the keyboard, as the right hand, now in single notes, climbs even higher at measures 116–​19 (124–​27). The two single-​note lines create an effect of almost unbearable yearning. The autograph and both the Schlesinger and Clementi publications show fingering for the trills: 5-​4 on the a♭″ and 1-​2 on the d′′. Beethoven also wrote a two-​measure facilitation in which only the a♭″ is trilled and the d′′ is played in repeated dotted eighth notes. The final section of the interlude at measures 120–​30 (128–​38) develops the first two notes of the theme with a remarkable series of cadences. They proceed from c minor to A♭ major and then downward through G major, F major, E♭ major, D major, c minor, b♭ minor, and A♭ major, coming to rest on G major, functioning as the dominant of the next variation. Variation Five Measure(s)

Upbeat to This variation unfolds without repeats, the theme 131–​46 in the upper voice of the right hand, which also (139–​54) plays an inner voice in sixteenth notes. The left hand provides harmonic support with broken chords in thirty-​second notes.

Second Interlude Measure(s)

Upbeat to An extension of the figuration of variation five 147-​159 continues to announce fragments of the theme with (155–​68 ever-​increasing tension.

Variation Six Measure(s)

160–​69 The trill is reinstated in a high register of the keyboard. (168–​77) The right hand plays both the extended trills and the first half of the theme, the left hand providing tremolo-​ like accompaniment in close proximity. The eight measures of the first half of the theme are extended at the upbeat tot measures 170–​71 (178–​79). This variation is one of the finest representations of the composer’s ability to create transcendental moments.

Coda Measure(s)

172–​177 A scalar passage in sixteenth notes in both hands leads (180–​185) to a three-​measure reference to the opening fragment of the theme, the movement ending quietly.

 

 

SELECTED BIBLIO GR APH Y

Biographies Cooper, Barry. Beethoven. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. Lockwood, Lewis. Beethoven: The Music and the Life. New York: Norton, 2003. Schindler, Anton Felix. Beethoven as I Knew Him. Edited by Donald W. MacArdle, translated by Constance S. Jolly. Mineola, NY: Dover, 1996. Newly edited from the 1860 publication. Solomon, Maynard. Beethoven. 2nd ed. New York: Schirmer Books, 1998. Sonneck, O. G. Beethoven: Impressions of His Contemporaries. Mineola, NY: Dover, 1967. A reprint of the 1926 original. Suchet, John. Beethoven: The Man Revealed. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2012. Swafford, Jan. Beethoven: Anguish and Triumph. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2014. Thayer, Alexander Wheelock. The Life of Ludwig van Beethoven. 3 vols. Translated by Henry Edward Krehbiel. New York: G. Schirmer, 1921. Elliot Forbes updated the Thayer work, adding some commentary in a two-​volume 1967 publication from Princeton University Press. The original is available in electronic form from Kindle. Wegeler, Franz Gerhard, and Ferdinand Ries. Remembering Beethoven. Translated by Frederick Noonan. Arlington, Virginia, Great Ocean Publishers, 1987. This is a reprint of the 1838 publication and its 1845 supplement.

Sources and Studies Albrecht, Theodore, ed. Letters to Beethoven and Other Correspondence. 3 vols. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1996. Anderson, Emily, ed. The Letters of Beethoven. 3 vols. London: St. Martin’s (Macmillan), 1961. Comini, Alessandra. The Changing Image of Beethoven: A Study in Mythmaking. Santa Fe, NM: Sunstone, 2008. Eaglefield-​Hull, Arthur ed. Beethoven’s Letters. Translated by J. S. Shedlock. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1926; repr., New York: Dover, 1972. Johnson, Douglas, with Alan Tyson and Robert Winter. The Beethoven Sketchbooks: History, Reconstruction, Inventory. Oakland: University of California Press, 1985. Köhler, Karl-​Heinz, et al., eds. Ludwig van Bethoven’s Konversations-​hefte. Leipzig: VEB Deutscher Verlag für Musik, 1968–​2002. Lenz, Wilhelm von. Beethoven: Eine Kunst-​Studie. 5 vols. Hamburg: Hoffman & Campe, 1860. Lenz, Wilhelm von. Beethoven et ses trois styles. Paris: Gustave Legouix, 1909. Original publication 1852. Martin, Russell. Beethoven’s Hair: An Extraordinary Historical Odyssey and a Scientific Mystery Solved. New York: Random House, 2000.

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Selected Bibliography

Sullivan, J[ohn] W[illiam] N[avin]. Beethoven: His Spiritual Development. New York: Nabu Press, printed through Amazon, 2011. A reprint of the 1927 publication. Tame, David. Beethoven and the Spiritual Path. Wheaton, IL: Theosophical Publishing House, 1994.

The Piano Sonatas Blom, Eric. Beethoven’s Pianoforte Sonatas Discussed. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo, 1968. A reprint of the 1938 London publication. Czerny, Carl. On the Proper Performance of All Beethoven’s Works for the Piano. Edited by Paul Badura-​Skoda. Vienna: Universal Edition, 1970. This is a reprint of Part Four of Czerny’s 1839 Complete Theoretical and Practical Pianoforte School, op. 500. Drake, Kenneth. The Beethoven Sonatas and the Creative Experience. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994. Drake, Kenneth. The Sonatas of Beethoven as He Played and Taught Them. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1981. Fischer, Edwin. Beethoven’s Pianoforte Sonatas. Translated by Stanley Godwin. London: Faber and Faber, 1959. Frohlich, Martha. Beethoven’s Appassionata Sonata. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. Jones, Timothy. Beethoven: The “Moonlight” and Other Sonatas, Op. 27 and Op. 31. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Marston, Nicholas. Beethoven’s Piano Sonata in E, Op. 109. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995. Newman, William S. Beethoven on Beethoven: Playing His Piano Music His Way. New York: Norton, 1988. Newman, William S. Performance Practices in Beethoven’s Piano Sonatas: An Introduction, New York: Norton, 1972. Rosen, Charles. Beethoven’s Piano Sonatas: A Short Companion. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002. Taub, Robert. Playing the Beethoven Piano Sonatas. Milwaukee, WI: Amadeus, 2002. Tovey, Donald Francis. A Companion to Beethoven’s Pianoforte Sonatas: Analysis. Rev. ed., edited by Barry Cooper. London: Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music, 1999. A revised edition of the 1931 publication.

Editions of the Piano Sonatas D’Albert, Eugen, ed. New York: Carl Fischer, 1981. Originally published in 1902. Arrau, Claudio, ed. Revised by Lothar Hoffman-​Erbrecht. Frankfurt: C. F. Peters, 1973. Bülow, Hans von, and Sigmund Lebert, eds. Tr. Theodor Baker. New York: G. Schirmer, 1894. Currently distributed by Hal Leonard, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Casella, Alfredo, ed. Rome: G. Ricordi, 1919. Cooper, Barry, ed. London: Associated Board of the Royal School of Music, 2007. Craxton, Harold, ed., with annotations by Donald Francis Tovey. London: Associated Board of the Royal School of Music, 1931. Gordon, Stewart, ed. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred, 2010. Hauschild, Peter, ed. Vienna: Wiener Urtext Edition, Schott/​Universal, 1999. Köhler, Louis, and Adolf Ruthardt. Frankfurt: C. F. Peters, 1890. Krebs, Carl, ed. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred publication of Kalmus Editions. Originally published in 1898. Lamond, Frederic, ed. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel, 1923. Martienssen, Carl Adolf, ed. New York: C. F. Peters, 1948. Pauer, Max, ed. Revised by Carl Adolf Martienssen. Leipzig: C. F. Peters, c.1920. Schenker, Heinrich ed. With a ew introduction by Carl Schachter. Mineola, NY: Dover, 1975 Originally published in 1934. Schnabel, Artur, ed. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred, 2006. Original publication: New York, Simon and Schuster, 1935. Taylor, Kendall, ed. Melbourne, AU: Allans Publishing PTY Limited, 1989. Currently distributed in the United States by Elkin Music International, Pompano Beach, Florida. Wallner, B[erta] A[ntonia], ed. Fingering by Conrad Hansen. Munich: G. Henle, 1952, 1980.

 

INDEX

accents, 47, 59–​61 Agricola, Martin, 106 Albert, Eugen d’, 7 Albrecht, Theodore, 8 Albrechtsberger, Johann Georg, 95 Andante favori. See WoO 57 An die Hoffnung. See op. 32 Anderson, Emily, 8 Archduke Rudolf. See Rudolf, Archduke of Austria arpeggios, 36–​38 Arrau, Claudio, 8 Artaria, 20, 95, 113, 139, 149, 240 articulation, 43–​47 autographs, 3–​4

Brandenburg, Sieghard, 8 Braun, Baron Peter von, 139 Braun, Josephine von, 139 Breitkopf & Härtel, 5, 16, 135, 198, 211, 215, 219, 220 Brentano, Antonie, 227, 249, 255, 261 Brentano, Franz, 227, 249 Brentano, Maximiliane, 227, 249 Breuning, Gerhard von, 21 Broadwood, James, 19 Broadwood, John, 18–​19 Broadwood, Thomas, 19 Browne, Anna Margarete, 119, 172 Browne-​Camus, Johann Georg von, 119, 146, 172 Brunsvik, Count Franz, 202 Brunsvik, Josephine, 133, 201, 202 Brunsvik, Therese, 133, 202, 211 Bülow, Hans von, 7, 37, 48 Bureau d’Arts et d’Industrie, 140, 165, 186, 189, 198, 202 Burgtheater, 139

Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel, 24, 32, 56, 65, 145, 219 Bach, Johann Sebastian, 28, 135, 219 Babcock, Alpheus, 11 Badura-​Skoda, Paul, 8 Barber, Samuel, 64, 150 barcarole, 174 Bartók, Béla, 174 Beethoven, Carl van, 155, 171, 185 Beethoven, Casper Carl van, 231 Beethoven-​Haus, 17, 22, 165, 231, 240, 261 Beethoven, Johanna van, 231, 239 Beethoven, Karl van, 231, 255 Beethoven, (Nikolaus) Johann van, 18, 261 Bigot de Morogues, Marie Kiéné, 202 Birkenstock, Antonie. See Brentano, Antonie Birnbach, Heinrich, 65 Blahetka, Joseph, 20 Bohak, Johann, 16 Bonaparte, Jerome, 211 Bonaparte, Napoleon, 171, 189, 197, 211, 219, 220, 231 Borderip & Wilkinson, 165 Brahms, Johannes, 232

Cantata on the Death of Emperor Joseph II, 150 Cappi, Giovanni, 6, 149, 155, 172 Cardinal Archbishop of Olmütz. See Rudolf, Archduke of Austria Casella, Alfredo, 7, 48 Cherubini, Luigi, 150 Chopin, Fryderyk, 48, 64, 150, 174 op. 10 no. 12, 263 op. 35, 153 Choral Fantasy. See op. 80 Christ on the Mount of Olives. See op. 85 Clementi, Muzio, 215, 220, 255, 261, 265 op. 34, no. 2, 135 op. 40, no 3, 135 Congress of Vienna, 231 Cooper, Barry, 8 Cramer, Johann Baptist, 19, 133, 153

269

 

270

Ind e x

Cranz, August, 165, 202 Craxton, Harold, 7, 47 Czerny, Carl, 7, 8, 15, 20, 24, 28, 30–​31, 33, 38, 39, 42, 43, 48, 65, 99, 145, 153, 160, 171, 202

Hummel, Johann Nepomuk, 12, 28, 186 Hungarian National Museum, 21

Dart, Thurston, 135 Deiters, Hermann, 9 Deutsche Staatsbibliotek, 261 Deym, Josephine, See Brunsvik, Josephine Diabelli, Anton, 21 Diabelli Variations, See op. 120 dynamics, 47, 56–​58

Jakesch, Matthias, 16 Jeffrey, Brian, 6 Johnson, Douglas, 5

Eder, Joseph, 119, 133 editions first and early, 5–​6 later, 6–​8 urtext, 7 Egmont, 150 Emperor Joseph II, 165 Érard, Sébastian, 11, 17, 189 Ertmann, Baroness Dorothea von, 231 Falenhorst, Georg Schall von, 13 Ferrari, Giacomo Gotifredo, 19 Fidelio, 185, 197 Fitzwilliam Museum, 240 Forbes, Elliot, 9 Frederick the Great, 19 Fries, Count Moritz von, 153 Frimmel, Theodor von, 17 Für Elise, 215 Fürstenberg-​Wetra, Countess Josephine Sophie zu. See Princess Josephine von Liechtenstein Gallenberg, Count Wenzel Robert, 155 Geoffrey, Dominique, 8 Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde, 220 Gleichenstein, Baron Ignaz von, 17, 211, 215 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 9, 150 Gordon, Stewart, 8 Gossec, François-​Joseph, 150 grace notes, 33–​36 Graf, Conrad, 21 Guicciardi, Countess Giulietta, 155, 159 Haslinger, Tobias, 20, 135 Hauschild, Peter, 8 Haydn Franz Joseph, 19, 38, 56, 63, 64, 65, 95, 119, 139, 189, 219 Hob. XVI/​37, 135 Hob. XVI/​42, 97 Hob. XVI/​50, 97 Heilegenstadt Testament, 8, 18, 165 Hoffman, E(rnst) T(heodor) A(madeus), 65 Hoffmeister, Franz Anton, 133, 145

Immortal Beloved, 8, 217, 249, 255, 261

Kalkbrenner, Friedrich, 12, 19 Keglevics, Countess Babette, 113 key relationships between movements, 79–​81 expected in sonata-​allegro structure, 65–​68 within movements, 68–​72 Knyvett, Charles, 19 Köhler, Louis, 7 Krebs, Karl, 7, 47 Krehbiel, Henry Edward, 9 Lamond, Frederic, 7 Lebert, Sigmund, 7 Leonore. See Fidelio Leonore Overture no. 2, 189 Library of Congress, 249 Lichnowsky, Count Moritz, 227 Lichnowsky, Maria Christiane, 133 Lichnowsky, Prince Karl, 95, 133, 149, 227 Leichtenstein, Prince Johann Joseph von, 156 Leichtenstein, Princess Josepine von, 156 Liszt, Franz, 21 Maetzel, Johann Nepomuk, 48 Malfatti, Anna, 215 Malfatti, Giovanni, 215 Malfatti, Therese, 17, 215 Manheim opening, 96, 101, 128, 203 “rocket,” 96, 121 manuscripts. See autographs Maria Theresa, 19 Martienssen, Carl Adolf, 8 Maximilian Franz, 119, 189 Méhul, Etienne-​Nicolas, 150 Mendelssohn, Fannie, 202 Mendelssohn, Felix, 174, 202 Missa solemnis, 255 Mölkerbastei, 197 Mollo, Tranquillo, 139 Montal, Claude, 39 mordents, 32–​33 Moscheles, Ignaz, 7, 48 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 63, 64, 65, 95, 139, 150, 151, 219 K. 283, 97 K. 331, 150, 151

 

Ind e x K. 457, 97 K. 570, 97 Nägeli, Hans Georg, 6, 171 Napoleon. See Bonaparte Newman, William S., 26 Odescalchi, Prince Innocenzo d’Erbe, 113 Oliva, Franz, 249 ornamentation, 23–​38 op. 1, 134 op. 2, no. 1, 25, 28, 30, 34, 35, 57, 59–​60, 63, 64, 67, 68, 69, 71, 73, 74, 80, 81, 84, 96–​100, 101, 121, 122, 124, 128, 137, 146, 162, 166, 178, 179, 191, 202, 203, 204, 205 op. 2, no. 2, 25, 37, 55, 58, 63, 64, 66, 67, 68, 69, 74, 76, 80, 81, 82, 84, 85, 101–​6, 107, 110, 114, 116, 128, 130, 131, 140, 146, 166, 167, 181, 204, 205, 221, 244 op. 2, no. 3, 25, 26–​27, 28, 29, 57, 63, 64, 66, 67, 69, 71, 74, 76, 80, 82, 84, 85, 102, 104, 105, 106–​11, 128, 130, 131, 138, 140, 146, 166, 181, 191, 204, 221 op. 7, 14, 34, 53, 55, 63, 64, 67, 68, 69, 71, 74, 76, 80, 82, 84, 85, 104, 105, 109, 110, 113–​18, 120, 126, 127, 130, 131, 139, 146, 162, 166, 167, 205 op. 9, 119 op. 10, no. 1, 14, 63, 64, 68, 69, 71, 74, 76, 80, 82, 84, 97, 98, 104, 109, 111, 120–​24, 136, 138, 139, 178, 203, 204 op. 10, no. 2, 25, 34, 36, 47, 63, 64, 68, 69, 74, 80, 83, 84, 85, 108, 117, 120, 124–​27, 139, 162, 198, 205 op. 10, no. 3, 14, 15, 34–​35, 46, 53, 66, 67, 69, 76, 80, 83, 84, 85, 102, 104, 107, 108, 109, 127–​32, 139, 140, 146, 166, 221 op. 13, 6, 14, 25, 33, 35, 44–​45, 53, 64, 66, 67, 69, 74, 76, 80, 82, 83, 84, 86, 105, 110, 111, 120, 122, 131, 133–​38, 139, 176, 203, 212 op. 14, no. 1, 13, 14, 47, 63, 68, 69, 74, 80, 83, 86, 105, 108, 110, 117, 126, 140–​42, 162, 205, 251 op. 14, no. 2, 14, 47, 63, 69, 81, 83, 84, 87, 98, 142–​44, 151, 181, 191, 204 op. 15, 95, 113 op. 18, 133 op. 20, 185 op. 21, 133 op. 22, 64, 67, 68, 69, 72, 74, 80, 81, 83, 84, 87, 105, 108, 110, 119, 145–​48, 166 op. 26, 25, 28, 37, 38, 54, 60, 64, 69, 71, 79, 80, 82, 84, 87, 105, 109, 110, 134, 146, 149–​53, 155, 156, 178

271

op. 27, no. 1, 28, 60, 64, 65, 69, 79, 80, 81, 82, 84, 87, 105, 110, 111, 114, 117, 120, 121, 126, 150, 156–​59, 162, 174 op. 27, no. 2, 3, 14, 38, 39, 64, 65, 67, 69, 71, 76, 80, 84, 88, 98, 100, 111, 117, 126, 136, 150, 156, 159–​63, 179, 203, 204 op. 28, 55, 65, 67, 69, 72, 76, 80, 83, 84, 88, 104, 105, 109, 110, 140, 146, 165–​69, 180, 181, 191 op. 31, no. 1, 6, 25, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 71, 73, 81, 83, 84, 88, 104, 105, 106, 108, 110, 147, 172–​75, 205 op. 31, no. 2, 6, 14, 33, 36, 39, 53, 54, 55, 61, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 73, 74, 76, 81, 84, 88, 98, 100, 102, 104, 107, 109, 122, 128, 134, 135, 140, 162, 166, 180, 175–​79, 203, 204, 205, 212, 221 op. 31, no. 3, 25, 56, 67, 69, 77, 80, 81, 82, 89, 104, 114, 142, 146, 166, 179–​84 op. 32, 201 op. 34, 113 op. 36, 134, 171 op. 37, 171 op. 49, no. 1, 64, 74, 79, 98, 108, 113, 121, 185–​86, 191, 204, 215 op. 49, no. 2, 47, 64, 71, 74, 79, 84, 98, 186–​87, 191, 204, 215 op. 51, no. 1, 31 op. 53, 4, 13, 17, 26, 28, 39, 49, 55, 61, 64, 65, 66, 67, 70, 73, 74, 77, 81, 82, 84, 89, 98, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 134, 172, 173, 189–​95, 198, 202, 204 op. 54, 32, 64, 79, 83, 84, 89, 198–​99, 212 op. 55, 150, 189 op. 56, 185 op. 57, 27, 34, 43, 53, 55, 64, 66, 67, 69, 70, 73, 74, 77, 81, 84, 89, 96, 97, 98, 100, 102, 104, 107, 120, 136, 140, 141, 142, 162, 175, 179, 190, 191, 192, 201–​0 9, 221 op. 58, 40, 128, 134, 173, 215 op. 60, 179 op. 67, 123, 156, 215 op. 68, 215 op. 78, 29, 32, 46, 47, 57, 64, 71, 73, 74, 77, 79, 84, 89, 111, 138, 198, 202, 211–​14, 228 op. 79, 6, 63, 68, 74, 80, 84, 89, 105, 110, 147, 215–​17 op. 80, 215 op. 81a, 3, 35, 36, 39, 48, 64, 68, 70, 77, 81, 82, 84, 90, 98, 102, 104, 107, 109, 111, 114, 122, 128, 134, 138, 140, 178, 204, 219–​25 op. 81b, 220 op. 85, 150, 171 op. 90, 48, 64, 65, 66, 79, 80, 84, 90, 105, 108, 110, 162, 179, 198, 203, 212, 227–​30, 251

 

272

Ind e x

op. 101, 30, 48, 60, 64, 65, 69, 70, 75, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 84, 90, 104, 109, 111, 117, 126, 138, 141, 146, 156, 159, 162, 166, 180, 205, 231–​37 op. 106, 5, 19–​20, 28, 40, 41, 47, 48, 53, 56, 61, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 71, 72, 75, 79, 81, 82, 83, 84, 91, 104, 105, 108, 109, 121, 141, 146, 156, 159, 202, 205, 239–​48 op. 109, 28, 64, 65, 66, 69, 75, 80, 83, 84, 91, 104, 109, 141, 142, 152, 205, 217, 249–​54, 256, 261 op. 110, 40, 41, 56, 64, 65, 69, 71, 72, 75, 80, 81, 82, 84, 91, 104, 109, 117, 121, 126, 141, 146, 156, 159, 162, 205, 250, 255–​59, 261 op. 111, 28, 37, 54, 64, 65, 67, 68, 69, 70, 75, 79, 80, 83, 84, 91, 104, 108, 109, 121, 122, 135, 137, 142, 144, 152, 156, 166, 180, 198, 205, 212, 261–​65 op. 120, 255 op. 132 46–​47 Pape, Jean Henri, 12 Paris Conservatoire de Musique, 202 Pasqualati, Baron Johann Baptist von, 197 pedal damper, 38–​39 sostenuto, 39–​40 una corda, 40–​43 Peters, C. F., 145 phrasing. See articulation piano development of, 11–​12 differences between Austrian-​German and English, 12 keyboard range limitations 13–​15 use of 53–​54 Broadwood, 18–​21, 39 Érard, 17–​18, 39 Graf. 18, 21–​22 Jakesch, 16 Schanz, 16–​17 Stein (Streicher), 13 Vogel, 17 Walter, 15, 16, 145 Piano Concerto no. 1. See op. 15 Piano Concerto no. 4. See op. 54 Porter, Cipriani, 9 Pope Pius VII, 171 Poulenc, Francis, 174 Prod’homme, Jacques Gabriel, 172 Prokofiev, Sergey, 64, 150, 232 Quantz, Johann Joachim, 106 Regent’s Harmonium Institution, 240 Reicha, Antoine, 65

Reinecke, Carl, 7 Reinschrift, 4, 261 Rellstab, Heinrich Friedrich, 159 rhythmic crescendo, 143, 202 Ries, Ferdinand, 5, 8, 19, 156, 189, 197, 201, 239, 261 Rudhardt, Adolf, 7 Rudolf, Archduke of Austria, 5, 211, 219, 220, 239, 240, 261 Saint-​Saëns, Camille, 182 Salieri, Antonio, 133 Scarlatti, Domenico, 65 Schanz, Johann, 16 Schanz, Wenzel, 16 Schenker, Heinrich, 7, 47 Schindler, Anton Felix, 9, 15, 48, 155, 159, 175 Schlesinger, Adolf Martin, 6, 249, 255, 261, 265 Schlesinger, Moritz, 261, 265 Schlösser, Louis, 8 Schnabel, Artur, 7, 48, 99 Schubert, Franz Peter, 139 Schudi, Burkat, 18–​19 Schultz, Joseph Reinhold, 20 Schumann, Robert, 48 Scriabin, Alexander, 64, 150, 232 Septet. See op. 20 Sextett for String Quartet and Two Horns. See op. 81b Simrock, Nikolaus, 98, 171, 186, 220 sketches, 4–​5 Smart, Sir Goerge, 21 sonata multi-​movement concept, 63–​65 sonata-​allegro structure, 65–​69 “truncated” sonata-​allegro, 98, 122, 178 Sonnenfels, Joseph Edlen, 165 Sonnleithner, Joseph , 197 sources, written, 8–​9 Spina, Anton, 21 Spina, Carl Anton, 21 staccato. See articulation Stackelberg, Baron Christoph von, 201 Starke, Friedrich, 249 Stationers Hall, 240, 261 Steibelt, Daniel, 153 Stein, Andreas, 13 Stein, Mattäus, 13 Stein, Nanette, 13 Steiner, Sigmund Anton, 20, 165, 227, 231, 255 Steinway, Albert, 39 Stewart, James, 11 Streicher, Andreas, 13, 18

 

Ind e x Stumpf, Johan Andreas, 21 Symphony no. 1. See op. 21 Symphony no. 2. See op. 36 Symphony no. 3. See op. 55 Symphony no. 4. See op. 60 Symphony no. 5. See op. 67 Symphony no. 6. See op. 68 Taylor, Kendall, 8, 48 tempo, 48–​49 Thayer, Alexander Wheelock, 9, 20 Theater an der Wien, 171, 215 Toscanini, Arturo, 49 Tovey, Donald Francis, 7, 47 Trémont, Baron de, 219 trills ending, 27–​28 extended, 28–​29 starting, 25–​27 Triple Concerto for piano, violin, and ‘cello. See op. 56 Türk, Daniel Gottlob, 106

turns, 29–​42 Tyson, Alan, 5 Urschrift, 4, 261 Varena, Joseph von, 17 Vienney, Louis-​Philippi-​Joseph-​Girod de. See Trémont, Baron de Waldstein, Count Ferdinand Ernest Gabriel von, 189 Wallner, B(erte), A(ntonie), 8 Walter, Anton (Gabriel), 16 Wegeler, Franz Gerhard, 8, 149, 155 Wieck, Friedrich, 8, 20–​21 Winter, Robert, 5 Wölffl, Joseph, 133 WoO 57, 189 WoO 73, 113 Zelter, Carl Friedrich, 8 Zemeskall von Domanovecz, Nikolaus, 16

273